This essay aims to outline a scientific approach to the investigation of consciousness emphasizing achievements and promise of hardcore bottom-up biology. We propose to contemplate what would be the minimal requirements of consciousness in the simplest of life forms. We show that, starting from the molecular nuts and bolts of such life forms, it is the extreme multitudinousness of the moving material components forming consciousness, and their organized swarming, that appears outstanding. This is in stark contrast with the impression obtained from introspection that consciousness is a single, unconstrained, immaterial stream.
AdelmanR.SaulR. L.AmesB. N. (1988). Oxidative damage to DNA: Relation to species metabolic rate and life span. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 85, 2706–2708.
2.
AllmannJ. M. (1999). Evolving Brains. New York, NY: Scientific American Library.
3.
ArmitageJ. P.BerryR. M. (2010). Time for bacteria to slow down. Cell, 141, 24–26.
4.
Bach-y-RitaP. (1994). Non-synaptic diffusion neurotransmission: A novel concept for future migraine research. Cephalalgia, 14, 396–400.
5.
BacskaiB. J.HochnerB.Mahaut-SmithM.AdamsS. R.KaangB. K.KandelE. R.TsienR. Y. (1993). Spatially resolved dynamics of cAMP and protein kinase A subunits in Aplysia sensory neurons. Science, 260, 222–226.
6.
BadgaiyanR. D.PosnerM. I. (1997). Time course of cortical activations in implicit and explicit recall. Journal of Neuroscience, 17, 4904–4913.
7.
BartumeusF.da LuzM. G. E.ViswanathanG. M.CatalanJ. (2005). Animal search strategies: A quantitative random-walk analysis. Ecology, 86, 3078–3087.
8.
BattitiR.BrunatoM.MasciaF. (2008). Reactive search and intelligent optimization. New York, NY: Springer Verlag.
9.
BéliveauR.GingrasD. (2010). La mort. Montreal, QC, Canada: Éditions Trécarré.
10.
BellA. J. (1999). Levels and loops: The future of artificial intelligence and neuroscience. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 354, 2013–2020.
11.
BeniG.WangJ. (1993). Swarm intelligence in cellular robotic systems. In robots and biological systems: Towards a new bionics? (pp. 703–712). Berlin: Springer.
12.
Ben-JacobE. (1998). Bacterial wisdom, Gödel’s theorem and creative genomic webs. Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and Its Applications, 248, 57–76.
BirrenS. J.MarderE. (2013). Plasticity in the neurotransmitter repertoire. Science, 340, 436–437.
15.
BockaertJ.PinJ. P. (1999). Molecular tinkering of G protein coupled receptors: An evolutionary success. The EMBO Journal, 18, 1723–1729.
16.
BordensteinS. R.TheisK. R. (2015). Host biology in light of the microbiome: Ten principles of holobionts and hologenomes. PLoS Biology, 13, e1002226.
17.
BornholtJ.LopezR.CarmeanD. M.CezeL.SeeligG.StraussK. (2016). A DNA-based archival storage system. In Proceedings of the twenty-first international conference on architectural support for programming languages and operating systems (pp. 637–649). New York, NY: ACM.
18.
BoulangerL. M. (2009). Immune proteins in brain development and synaptic plasticity. Neuron, 64, 93–109.
19.
BourzacK. (2014). Microbiome: The bacterial tightrope. Nature, 516, S14–S16.
20.
BraunC. M. (1989). Microgenetic theory: An inspiration for cognitive neuroscience? The life of the mind by Jason W Brown, M.D. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1988. Brain and Cognition, 11, 139–143.
21.
BraunC. M. (1991). The Marxist categories of the “abstract” and ‘concrete” and the cultural-historical school of psychology. Multidisciplinary Newsletter for Activity Theory, 4, 36–41.
22.
BraunC. M. (2003). Vers un cadre neuropsychologique général pour le développement du nourrisson. Enfance, 55, 293–324.
23.
BraunC. M. (2015). Biological costs of the evolution of adaptive behavior and consciousness. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice, 2, 377–403.
24.
BraunC. M. J.LeblancY. (2016). Beyond the synapse and Hebb’s rule: Is the rest of the neuron more important for psychiatric disorders?Current Psychiatry Reviews, 12, 266–277.
25.
BrayD. (1998). Signaling complexes: Biophysical constraints on intracellular communication. Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structure, 27, 59–75.
26.
BrickleyS. G.ModyI. (2012). Extrasynaptic GABAA receptors: Their function in the CNS and implications for disease. Neuron, 73, 23–34.
27.
BruggemanF. J.WesterhoffH. V. (2007). The nature of systems biology. Trends in Microbiology, 15, 45–50.
28.
BurrowsM.RogersS. M.OttS. R. (2011). Epigenetic remodelling of brain, body and behaviour during phase change in locusts. Neural Systems & Circuits, 1, 1–9.
29.
CapraF.LuisiP. L. (2014). The systems view of life: A unifying vision. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
30.
CarlsonA. L.XiaK.Azcarate-PerilM. A.GoldmanB. D.AhnM.StynerM. A.… KnickmeyerR. C. (2018). Infant gut microbiome associated with cognitive development. Biological Psychiatry, 83, 148–159.
31.
ChaddertonP.MargrieT. W.HäusserM. (2004). Integration of quanta in cerebellar granule cells during sensory processing. Nature, 428, 856–860.
32.
ChangeuxJ. P.GareyL. (1997). Neuronal man: The biology of mind. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
33.
ChiappinelliV. A.GiacobiniE. (1978). Time course of appearance of α-bungarotoxin binding sites during development of chick ciliary ganglion and iris. Neurochemical Research, 3, 465–478.
34.
ChrobakA. A.NowakowskiJ.DudekD. (2016). Interactions between the gut microbiome and the central nervous system and their role in schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and depression. Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, 2, 5–11.
35.
CollingridgeG. L.IsaacJ. T. R.WangY. T. (2004). Receptor trafficking and synaptic plasticity. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 5, 952–962.
36.
CornforthD. M.PopatR.McNallyL.GurneyJ.Scott-PhillipsT. C.IvensA.BrownS. P. (2014). Combinatorial quorum sensing allows bacteria to resolve their social and physical environment. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111, 4280–4284.
37.
DarntonN. C.TurnerL.RojevskyS.BergH. C. (2010). Dynamics of bacterial swarming. Biophysical Journal, 98, 2082–2090.
38.
DatsenkoK. A.PougachK.TikhonovA.WannerB. L.SeverinovK.SemenovaE. (2012). Molecular memory of prior infections activates the CRISPR/Cas adaptive bacterial immunity system. Nature Communications, 3, 945.
39.
De CastroL. N. (2002). Immune, swarm, and evolutionary algorithms, Part I: Basic models. In Proceedings of the 9th international conference on neural information processing (ICONIP’02) (Vol. 3, pp. 1464–1468). New York, NY: IEEE.
40.
De Graaf-PetersV. B.Hadders-AlgraM. (2006). Ontogeny of the human central nervous system: What is happening when?Early Human Development, 82, 257–266.
41.
DehaeneS.ChangeuxJ. P.NaccacheL. (2011). The global neuronal workspace model of conscious access: From neuronal architectures to clinical applications. In DehaeneS.ChristenY. (Eds.), Characterizing consciousness: From cognition to the clinic? (pp. 55–84). Berlin, Germany: Springer.
42.
DennettD. (2017). From bacteria to Bach and back: The evolution of minds. New York, NY: W. W. Norton and Company.
43.
DonaldM. (2001). A mind so rare: The evolution of human consciousness. New York, NY: W.W. Norton and Company.
44.
DrouinG.GodinJ. R.PagéB. (2011). The genetics of vitamin C loss in vertebrates. Current Genomics, 12, 371–378.
45.
EdelmanG. M. (1987). Neural Darwinism: The theory of neuronal group selection. New York, NY: Basic Books.
46.
EdenE.Geva-ZatorskyN.IssaevaI.CohenA.DekelE.DanonT.AlonU. (2011). Proteome half-life dynamics in living human cells. Science, 331, 764–768.
47.
Eilam E. (2005). Reversing: Secrets of reverse engineering. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
48.
El AidyS.StillingR.DinanT. G.CryanJ. F. (2016). Microbiome to brain: Unravelling the multidirectional axes of communication. In LyteM.P. E. (Eds.), Microbial endocrinology: Interkingdom signaling in infectious disease and health (pp. 301–336). London, England: Springer.
49.
FeynmanR. P.LeightonR. (1988). What do you care what others think: Further adventures of a curious character. New York, NY: Bantam Books.
50.
FoulgerR. E.Osumi-SutherlandD.McIntoshB. K.HuloC.MassonP.PouxS.… & LomaxJ. (2015). Representing virus-host interactions and other multi-organism processes in the Gene Ontology. BMC Microbiology, 15(1), 146–158.
51.
FuxeK.Borroto-EscuelaD. O.Romero-FernandezW.Diaz-CabialeZ.RiveraA.FerraroL.AgnatiL. F. (2012). Extrasynaptic neurotransmission in the modulation of brain function: Focus on the striatal neuronal–glial networks. Frontiers in Physiology, 3, 1–17.
52.
GamezD. (2008). Progress in machine consciousness. Consciousness and Cognition, 1, 887–910.
53.
GardnerM. (1970). Mathematical games: The fantastic combinations of John Conway’s new solitaire game “life.”Scientific American, 223, 120–123.
54.
GershensonC. (2010). Computing networks: A general framework to contrast neural and swarm cognitions. Paladyn Journal of Behavioral Robotics, 1, 147–153.
55.
GetherU. (2000). Uncovering molecular mechanisms involved in activation of G protein-coupled receptors. Endocrine Reviews, 21, 90–113.
GrasséP. P. (1959). La reconstruction du nid et les coordinations inter-individuelles chez Bellicositermes Natalensis et Cubitermes sp. La théorie de la stigmergie: Essai d’interprétation du comportement des termites constructeurs. Insectes Sociaux, 6, 41–81.
59.
GuttenbergN.GoldenfeldN. (2009). Friction factor of two-dimensional rough-boundary turbulent soap film flows. Physics Reviews, 79, 065306.
60.
HalaviM.HamiltonK. A.ParekhR.AscoliG. A. (2012). Digital reconstructions of neuronal morphology: Three decades of research trends. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 6, 1–11.
61.
HawkingS.MlodinowL. (2010). The grand design. New York, NY: Bantam Books.
62.
HayflickL.MooreheadP. S. (1961). The serial cultivation of human diploid cell strains. Experimental Cell Research, 25, 585–621.
63.
HeijtzR. D. (2016, December). Fetal, neonatal, and infant microbiome: Perturbations and subsequent effects on brain development and behavior. Seminars in Fetal and Neonatal Medicine, 21, 410–417.
64.
HolzerP.FarziA. (2014). Neuropeptides and the microbiota-gut-brain axis. In LyteM.CryanJ. F. (Eds.), Microbial endocrinology: The microbiota-gut-brain axis in health and disease (pp. 195–219). New York, NY: Springer.
65.
HutchisonC. A.ChuangR. Y.NoskovV. N.Assad-GarciaN.DeerinckT. J.EllismanM. H.PelletierJ. F. (2016). Design and synthesis of a minimal bacterial genome. Science, 351, aad6253.
66.
IourovI. Y.VorsanovaS. G.YurovY. B. (2006). Chromosomal variation in mammalian neuronal cells: Known facts and attractive hypotheses. International Review of Cytology, 249, 143–191.
67.
JacksonS. E. (1998). How do small single-domain proteins fold?Folding and Design, 3, R81–R91.
68.
JacobT. C.MossS. J.JurdR. (2008). GABAA receptor trafficking and its role in the dynamic modulation of neuronal inhibition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 9, 331–343.
69.
JamesW. (1950). The principles of psychology (Vols. 1–2). New York, NY: Dover Publications.
70.
JanikR.ThomasonL. A.StaniszA. M.ForsytheP.BienenstockJ.StaniszG. J. (2016). Magnetic resonance spectroscopy reveals oral Lactobacillus promotion of increases in brain GABA, N-acetyl aspartate and glutamate. Neuroimage, 125, 988–995.
71.
JohnsonB. R.LinksvayerT. A. (2010). Deconstructing the superorganism: Social physiology, groundplans, and sociogenomics. Quarterly Review of Biology, 85, 57–79.
72.
KaiserD.RobinsonM.KroosL. (2010). Myxobacteria, polarity, and multicellular morphogenesis. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology, 2, 1–27.
KellyJ. R.ClarkeG.CryanJ. F.DinanT. G. (2016). Brain-gut-microbiota axis: Challenges for translation in psychiatry. Annals of Epidemiology, 26, 366–372.
75.
KennedyP. J.MurphyA. B.CryanJ. F.RossP. R.DinanT. G.StantonC. (2016). Microbiome in brain function and mental health. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 57, 289–301.
KongS. G.OkajimaK. (2016). Diverse photoreceptors and light responses in plants. Journal of Plant Research, 129, 111–114.
78.
LaffertyK. D. (2006). Can the common brain parasite, Toxoplasma gondii, influence human culture?Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 273, 2749–2755.
79.
LagercrantzH.ChangeuxJ. P. (2010). On the emergence of consciousness. In LagercrantzH.HansonM.A.MentL.R.PeeblesD.M. (Eds.), The newborn brain (pp. 377–393). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
80.
LeCunY.BengioY.HintonG. (2015). Deep learning. Nature, 521, 436–444.
81.
LeeY. K.MazmanianS. K. (2010). Has the microbiota played a critical role in the evolution of the adaptive immune system?Science, 330, 1768–1773.
82.
LevyM.ThaissC. A.ElinavE. (2015). Metagenomic cross-talk: The regulatory interplay between immunogenomics and the microbiome. Genome Medicine, 7, 120.
83.
LichockiP.TaraporeD.KellerL.FloreanoD. (2012). Neural networks as mechanisms to regulate division of labor. The American Naturalist, 179, 391–400.
84.
LiuR.HongJ.XuX.FengQ.ZhangD.GuY.… XiaH. (2017). Gut microbiome and serum metabolome alterations in obesity and after weight-loss intervention. Nature Medicine, 23, 859.
85.
LogsdonA. F.EricksonM. A.RheaE. M.SalamehT. S.BanksW. A. (2017). Gut reactions: How the blood–brain barrier connects the microbiome and the brain. Experimental Biology and Medicine, 243, 159–165.
86.
MarandubaC. M. D. C.De CastroS. B. R.SouzaG. T. D.RossatoC.da GuiaF. C.ValenteM. A. S.. . . MacedoG. C. (2015). Intestinal microbiota as modulators of the immune system and neuroimmune system: Impact on the host health and homeostasis. Journal of Immunology Research, 2015, 931–574.
87.
MargulisL. (2001). The conscious cell. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 929, 55–70.
88.
MartinS. L. (2009). Developmental biology: Jumping-gene roulette. Nature, 460, 1087–1088.
89.
MaturanaH. R. (1970). Biology of cognition. In MaturanaH.R.VarelaF.J. (Eds.), Autopoiesis and cognition (pp. 1–58). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Reidel.
90.
MinotC. S. (1902). The problem of consciousness in its biological aspects. Science, 16, 1–12.
91.
MitchellA.RomanoG. H.GroismanB.YonaA.DekelE.KupiecM.PilpelY. (2009). Adaptive prediction of environmental changes by microorganisms. Nature, 460, 220–224.
92.
ModneyB. K.HattonG. I. (1994). Maternal behaviors: Evidence that they feed back to alter brain morphology and function. Acta Paediatrica, 83, 29–32.
93.
MoutardC.DehaeneS.MalachR. (2015). Spontaneous fluctuations and non-linear ignitions: Two dynamic faces of cortical recurrent loops. Neuron, 88, 194–206.
94.
NajkarN.RazzaziF.SametiH. (2010). A novel approach to HMM-based speech recognition systems using particle swarm optimization. Mathematical and Computer Modelling, 52, 1910–1920.
95.
NobleD. (2008). The music of life: Biology beyond genes. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
96.
NobleD. (2013). Physiology is rocking the foundations of evolutionary biology. Experimental Physiology, 98, 1235–1243.
97.
NoyN.BickelS.Zion-GolumbicE.HarelM.GolanT.DavidescoI.. . . MehtaA. D. (2015). Ignition’s glow: Ultra-fast spread of global cortical activity accompanying local “ignitions” in visual cortex during conscious visual perception. Consciousness and Cognition, 35, 206–224.
98.
OberheimN. A.WangX.GoldmanS.NedergaardM. (2006). Astrocytic complexity distinguishes the human brain. Trends in Neuroscience, 29, 547–553.
99.
OgilvieL. A.OverallA. D.JonesB. V. (2012). The human-microbe coevolutionary continuum. Microbial Ecological Theory, 25, 42.
100.
OzgyinL.ErdősE.BojcsukD.BalintB. L. (2015). Nuclear receptors in transgenerational epigenetic inheritance. Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biology, 118, 34–43.
101.
PassinoK. M. (2010). Bacterial foraging optimization. International Journal of Swarm Intelligence Research, 1, 1–16.
102.
PatteeH. H. (1969). How does a molecule become a message?Communication in Development, 3, 1–16.
103.
PearsonK. (1905). The problem of the random walk. Nature, 72, 294.
104.
PoonC. S.ShahJ. V. (1998). Hebbian learning in parallel and modular memories. Biological Cybernetics, 78, 79–86.
105.
PrinceA. L.ChuD. M.SeferovicM. D.AntonyK. M.MaJ.AagaardK. M. (2015). The perinatal microbiome and pregnancy: Moving beyond the vaginal microbiome. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine, 5, a023051.
106.
PuellesL.HarrisonM.PaxinosG.WatsonC. (2013). A developmental ontology for the mammalian brain based on the prosomeric model. Trends in Neurosciences, 36, 570–578.
107.
RakicP. (2009). Evolution of the neocortex: Perspective from developmental biology. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10, 724–735.
108.
RamaswamyS. (2010). The mechanics and statistics of active matter. The Annual Review of Condensed Matter Physics, 1, 323–345.
RehenS. K.YungY. C.McCreightM. P.KaushalD.YangA. H.AlmeidaB. S. V.ChunJ. (2005). Constitutional aneuploidy in the normal human brain. Journal of Neuroscience, 25, 2176–2180.
111.
ReynoldsC. W. (1987). Flocks, herds and schools: A distributed behavioral model. ACM SIGGRAPH Computer Graphics, 21(4), 25–34.
112.
RichardsonL. F. (2007). Weather prediction by numerical process. New York: Cambridge University Press. (Original work published 1922)
113.
RobbinsT. W. (2016). Neurobehavioural sequelae of social deprivation in rodents revisited: Modelling social adversity for developmental neuropsychiatric disorders. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 30, 1082–1089.
114.
RotemS.RosenbergE. (2016). Collective memory and the hologenome concept. Global Journal of Medical Research, 16, 18–24.
115.
RyanF. (2016). How viruses and bacteria have shaped the human genome the implications for disease. In NibaliL.HendersonB.RyanF. (Eds.), The human microbiota and chronic disease: Dysbiosis as a cause of human pathology (Chapter 10, pp. 165–178). Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
116.
SalvucciE. (2016). Microbiome, holobiont and the net of life. Critical Reviews in Microbiology, 42, 485–494.
117.
Sanz-ClementeA.NicollR. A.RocheK. W. (2013). Diversity in NMDA receptor composition many regulators, many consequences. The Neuroscientist, 19, 62–75.
118.
SatterfieldC. L.LowensteinT. K.VreelandR. H.RosenzweigW. D.PowersD. W. (2005). New evidence for 250 Ma age of halotolerant bacterium from a Permian salt crystal. Geology, 33, 265–268. doi:10.1130/G21106.1
119.
SchlegelT.VisscherP. K.SeeleyT. D. (2012). Beeping and piping: Characterization of two mechano-acoustic signals used by honey bees in swarming. Naturwissenschaften, 99, 1067–1071.
120.
SchmidhuberJ. (2015). Deep learning in neural networks: An overview. Neural Networks, 61, 85–117.
121.
SchnellM. J.McGettiganJ. P.WirblichC.PapaneriA. (2010). The cell biology of rabies virus: Using stealth to reach the brain. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 8, 51–61.
122.
SelkrigJ.WongP.ZhangX.PetterssonS. (2014). Metabolic tinkering by the gut microbiome: Implications for brain development and function. Gut Microbes, 5, 369–380.
123.
SherwoodC. C.StimpsonC. D.RaghantiM. A.WildmanD. E.UddinM.GrossmanL. I.HofP. R. (2006). Evolution of increased glia–neuron ratios in the human frontal cortex. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103, 13606–13611.
124.
ShklarshA.ArielG.SchneidmanE.Ben-JacobE. (2011). Smart swarms of bacteria-inspired agents with performance adaptable interactions. PLOS Computational Biology, 7, e1002177.
125.
SnodgrassM.KalaidaN.WinerE. S. (2009). Access is mainly a second-order process: SDT models whether phenomenally (first-order) conscious states are accessed by reflectively (second-order) conscious processes. Consciousness and Cognition, 18, 561–564.
StillingR. M.BordensteinS. R.DinanT. G.CryanJ. F. (2014). Friends with social benefits: Host-microbe interactions as a driver of brain evolution and development?Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology, 4, 1–17.
128.
StockJ. B.ZhangS. (2013). The biochemistry of memory. Current Biology, 23, R741–R745.
129.
SulaimanS.YahyaS. A.ShukorN. S. M.IsmailA. R.ZaahirahQ.YaacobH.DzulkifliM. A. (2015). Clustering natural language morphemes from EEG signals using the artificial bee colony algorithm. In Phon-AmnuaisukS.AuT. W. (Eds.), Computational intelligence in information systems (pp. 51–60). Cham, Switzerland: Springer.
TaniJ. (1998). An interpretation of the “self” from the dynamical systems perspective: A constructivist approach. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 5, 516–542.
132.
TaniJ. (2009). Autonomy of self at criticality: The perspective from synthetic neuro-robotics. Adaptive Behavior, 17, 421–443.
133.
TaniJ. (2016). Exploring robotic minds: Actions, symbols, and consciousness as self-organizing dynamic phenomena. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
134.
TetelM. J.de VriesG. J.MelcangiR. C.PanzicaG.O’MahonyS. M. (2017). Steroids, stress, and the gut microbiome-brain axis. Journal of Neuroendocrinology, 29, 1–8.e12548.
135.
ThompsonR. F. (1993). The brain: A neuroscience primer. New York, NY: W.H. Freeman and Company.
136.
ThurmanR. E.RynesE.HumbertR.VierstraJ.MauranoM. T.HaugenE.HansenR. S. (2012). The accessible chromatin landscape of the human genome. Nature, 489, 75–82.
137.
TrianniV.TuciE. (2011). Swarm cognition and artificial life. In KampisG.KarsaiI.SzathmáryE. (Eds.), Advances in artificial life: Darwin meets von Neumann (pp. 270–277). Berlin, Germany: Springer.
138.
UeyamaT.FukudaT. (1993). Self-organization of cellular robots using random walk with simple rules. In Proceedings of 1993 IEEE international conference on robotics and automation (pp. 595–600). New York, NY: IEEE.
139.
van AstJ.BabuskaR.De SchutterB. (2008). A general modeling framework for swarms. In Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE congress on evolutionary computation (CEC 2008) (pp. 3796–3801). Hong Kong, China: IEEE.
140.
VarelaF. G.MaturanaH. R.UribeR. (1974). Autopoiesis: The organization of living systems, its characterization and a model. Biosystems, 5, 187–196.
141.
VerkhratskyA.ParpuraV.RodríguezJ. J. (2011). Where the thoughts dwell: The physiology of neuronal–glial “diffuse neural net.”Brain Research Reviews, 66, 133–151.
142.
ViziE. S.FeketeA.KarolyR.MikeA. (2010). Non-synaptic receptors and transporters involved in brain functions and targets of drug treatment. British Journal of Pharmacology, 160, 785–809.
143.
VullhorstD.MitchellR. M.KeatingC.RoychowdhuryS.KaravanovaI.Tao-ChengJ. H.BuonannoA. (2015). A negative feedback loop controls NMDA receptor function in cortical interneurons via neuregulin 2/ErbB4 signalling. Nature Communications, 6, 1–14.
144.
WangY. (2015, July). Cognitive robotics and mathematical engineering. In 2015 IEEE 14th international conference on cognitive informatics & cognitive computing (ICCI* CC) (pp. 4–6). New York, NY: IEEE.
145.
WegnerD. M. (2002). The illusion of conscious will. Cambridge: MIT Press.
146.
WegnerD. M. (2003). The mind’s best trick: How we experience conscious will. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7, 65–69.
147.
WolframS. (2002). A new kind of science. Champaign, IL: Wolfram Media.
148.
XieL.KangH.XuQ.ChenM. J.LiaoY.ThiyagarajanM.NedergaardM. (2013). Sleep drives metabolite clearance from the adult brain. Science, 342, 373–377.
