The objective of this article is to formulate the concept of organizational identity in such a way that it can be distinguished analytically from related concepts, such as organizational culture and image, and can be used operationally to identify bona fide organizational identity claims referents and associated identity-referencing discourse. The proposal amounts to a stronger version of Albert and Whetten (1985), in that the implicit links between the elements of their composite, tripartite, formulation are made explicit and their treatment of organizational identity as a defined construct is emphasized. Although the proposal eschews conceptions of organizational identity formulated from the perspective of individuals, it treats organizational identity as an analogue of individual identity, drawing attention to the parallel functions identity plays for both individual and collective social actors, as well as the parallel distinguishing structural features of individual and organizational identity referents. The principle recommendation is to conduct the study of member-agents' answers to the question, “Who are we as an organization?” within the parameters of a defined identity-claim conceptual domain (what) and associated phenomenological markers of identity-referencing discourse (how, when, why).
Abrams, D., & Hogg, M. (1988). Comments on the motivational status of self-esteem in social identity and intergroup discrimination. European Journal of Social Psychology, 18, 317-334.
2.
Albert, S., & Adams, E. (2002). The hybrid identity of law firms. In G. Soenen & B. Moingeon (Eds.), Corporate and organizational identities: Integrating strategy, marketing, communication and organizational perspectives(pp. 35-50). New York: Routledge.
3.
Albert, S., Ashforth, B. E., & Dutton, J. E. (2000). Organizational identity and identification: Charting new waters and building new bridges. The Academy of Management Review, 25, 13-17.
4.
Albert, S., Godfrey, P. C., & Whetten, D. A. (1999). Hybrid identity organizations (Working paper). Brigham Young University Marriott School of Management, Provo, UT.
5.
Albert, S., & Whetten, D. A. (1985). Organizational identity. Research in Organizational Behavior, 7, 263-295.
6.
Aldrich, H. E. (1999). Organizations evolving.London: Sage.
7.
Ashforth, B. E., & Johnson, S. A. (2001). Which hat to wear? The relative salience of multiple identities in organizational contexts. In M. A. Hogg & D. J. Terry (Eds.), Social identity processes in organizational contexts (pp. 31-48).Philadelphia: Psychology Press.
8.
Ashforth, B. E., & Mael, F. A. (1989). Social identity theory and the organization. Academy of Management Review, 14, 20-39.
9.
Ashforth, B. E., & Mael, F. A. (1996). Organizational identity and strategy as a context for the individual. Advances in Strategic Management, 13, 19-64.
10.
Balmer, J. M. T., & Greyser, S. A. (2002). Managing the multiple identities of the corporation. California Management Review, 44, 72-86.
11.
Barnett, W. P., & Carroll, G. R. (1995). Modeling internal organizational change. Annual Review of Sociology, 21, 217-236.
12.
Barney, J. B., & Stewart, A. C. (2000). Organizational identity as moral philosophy: Competitive implications for diversified corporations. In M. Schultz, M. J. Hatch, & M. H. Larsen (Eds.), The expressive organization: Linking identity, reputation, and the corporate brand (pp. 11-35). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
13.
Baron, J. N. (2004). Employing identities in organizational ecology. Industrial and Corporate Change, 13, 3-32.
14.
Baum, J. A. C. (1996). Organizational ecology. In S. R. Clegg, C. Hardy, & W. Nord (Eds.), Handbook of organizational studies(pp. 74-111). London: Sage.
15.
Bauman, Z. (1990). Thinking sociologically. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
16.
Baumeister, R. F. (1998). The self. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology(pp. 680-740). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
17.
Baumeister, R. F., & Vohs, K. D. (2003). Self-regulation and the executive function of the self. In M. R. Leary & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), Handbook of self and identity (pp. 197-217). New York: Guilford.
18.
Bouchikhi, H., & Kimberly, J. R. (2003). Escaping the identity trap. MIT Sloan Management Review, 44, 2026-2026.
19.
Brewer, M. B. (1991). The social self: On being the same and different at the same time. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 17, 475-482.
20.
Brewer, M. B. (2003). Optimal distinctiveness, social identity, and the self. In M. R. Leary & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), Handbook of self and identity. (pp. 480-491). New York: Guilford.
21.
Brewer, M. B., & Gardner, W. (1996). Who is this “we”? Levels of collective identity and self representations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 83-93.
22.
Brickson, S. (2000). The impact of identity orientation on individual and organizational outcomes in demographically diverse settings. Academy of Management Review, 25, 82-101.
23.
Brickson, S., & Brewer, M. (2001). Identity orientation and intergroup relations in organizations. In M. A. Hogg & D. J. Terry (Eds.), Social identity processes in organizational contexts(pp. 49-65). Philadelphia: Psychology Press.
24.
Brown, T. J., Dacin, P. A., Pratt, M. G., & Whetten, D. A. (2006). Identity, intended image, construed image, and reputation: An interdisciplinary framework and suggested terminology. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 34, 99-106.
25.
Brubaker, R., & Cooper, F. (2000). Beyond “identity.”Theory and Society, 29, 1-47.
26.
Brunninge, O. (2005). Organisational self-understanding and the strategy process—Strategy dynamics in Scania andHandelsbanken(JIBS Dissertation Series No. 027). Jonkoping, Sweden: Jonkoping International Business School.
27.
Buenstorf, G., & Murmann, J. P. (2005). Ernst Abbe's scientific management: Theoretical insights from a nineteenth-century dynamic capabilities approach. Industrial and Corporate Change, 14, 543-578.
28.
Clark, B. R. (1972). The organizational saga in higher education. Administrative Science Quarterly, 17, 178-184.
29.
Coleman, J. S. (1974). Power and the structure of society. In P. M. Blau (Ed.), Approaches to the study of social structure and a theory of action(pp. 76-93). New York: Free Press.
30.
Corley, K. G., & Gioia, D. A. (2004). Identity ambiguity and change in the wake of a corporate spin-off. Administrative Science Quarterly, 49, 173-208.
31.
Czarniawska, B. (1997). Narrating the organization: Dramas of institutional identity.Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
32.
Deephouse, D. L. (1999). To be different, or to be the same? It's a question (and theory) of strategic balance. Strategic Management Journal, 20, 147-166.
33.
Donaldson, L., & Davis, J. H. (1991). Stewardship theory or agency theory: CEO governance and shareholder returns. Australian Journal of Management, 16(1), 49-64.
34.
Douglas, M. (1987). How institutions think. London: Routledge Kegan Paul.
35.
Dutton, J. E., & Dukerich, J. M. (1991). Keeping an eye on the mirror: Image and identity in organizational adaptation. Academy of Management Journal, 34, 517-554.
36.
Dutton, J. E., Dukerich, J. M., & Harquail, C. V. (1994). Organizational images and member identification. Administrative Science Quarterly, 39, 239-263.
37.
Dyer, G. W., & Whetten, D. A. (in press). Family firms and social responsibility: Evidence from the S&P 500. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice.
38.
Elsbach, K. D., & Kramer, R. M. (1996). Member's Responses to organizational identity threats: Encountering and countering the Business Week Rankings. Administrative Science Quarterly, 41, 442-476.
39.
Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity, youth and crisis. New York: Norton.
40.
Feldman, S. P. (2002). Memory as a moral decision. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishing.
41.
Fiol, C. M. (2001). Revisiting an identity-based view of sustainable competitive advantage. Journal of Management, 27, 691-699.
42.
Fiol, C. M. (2002). Capitalizing on paradox: The role of language in transforming organizational identities. Organizational Science, 13, 653-666.
43.
Fiol, C. M., Hatch, M. J., & Golden-Biddle, K. (1998). Organizational culture and identity: What's the difference anyway? In D. A. Whetten & P. C. Godfrey (Eds.), Identity in organizations: Building theory through conversations(pp. 56-59).Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
44.
Fombrun, C. J. (1996). Reputation: Realizing value from the corporate image. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
45.
Fombrun, C. J., & van Riel, C. B. M. (2003). Fame and fortune: How successful companies build winning reputations.Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall / Financial Times.
46.
Foreman, P., & Whetten, D. A. (2002). An identity theory perspective on multiple expectations in organizations. Organizational Science, 13, 618-635.
47.
Friedland, R., & Alford, R. R. (1991). Bringing society back in: Symbols, practices, and institutional contradictions. In W. W. Powell & P. J. DiMaggio (Eds.), The new institutionalism in organizational analysis (pp. 232-266). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
48.
Giddens, A. (1984). The constitution of society.Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
49.
Gioia, D. A., & Chittipeddi, K. (1991). Sensemaking and sensegiving in strategic change initiation. Strategic Management Journal, 12, 443-458.
50.
Gioia, D. A., Schultz, M., & Corley, K. G. (2000). Organizational identity, image, and adaptive instability. Academy of Management Review, 25(1), 63-81.
51.
Gioia, D. A., Schultz, M., & Corley, K. G. (2002). On celebrating the organizational identity metaphor: A rejoinder to Cornelissen. British Journal of Management, 13, 269-275.
52.
Gioia, D. A., & Thomas, J. B. (1996). Identity, image, and issue interpretation: Sensemaking during strategic change in academia. Administrative Science Quarterly, 41, 370-403.
53.
Glynn, M. A. (2000). When cymbals become symbols: Conflict over organizational identity within a symphony orchestra. Organization Science, 11, 285-298.
54.
Goodstein, J., & Potter, R. (1999). Beyond financial incentives: Organizational ethics and organizational integrity. HEC Forum, 11(4), 293-305.
55.
Golden-Biddle, K., & Rao, H. (1997). Breaches in the boardroom: Organizational identity and conflicts of commitment in a nonprofit organization. Organization Science, 8, 593-611.
56.
Greenwood, R., & Hinings, C. R. (1993). Understanding strategic change: The contribution of archetypes. Academy of Management Journal, 36, 1052-1081.
57.
Haslam, S. A., Postmes, T., & Ellemers, N. (2003). More than a metaphor: Organizational identity makes organizational life possible. British Journal of Management, 14, 357-369.
58.
Hatch, M. J., & Schultz, M. (1997). Relations between organizational culture, identity and image. European Journal of Marketing, 31(5/6), 356-365.
59.
Hatch, M. J., & Schultz, M. (2000). Scaling the tower of Babel: Relational differences between identity, image, and culture in organizations. In M. Schultz, M. J. Hatch, & M. H. Larsen (Eds.), The expressive organization: Linking identity, reputation, and the corporate brand (pp. 11-35). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
60.
Haveman, H. A., & Rao, H. (1997). Structuring a theory of moral sentiments: Institutional and organizational coevolution in the early thrift industry. American Journal of Sociology, 102, 1606-1651.
61.
Heath, C., & Sitkin, S. B. (2001). Big-B versus Big-O: What is organizational about organizational behavior?Journal of Organizational Behavior, 22, 43-58.
62.
Hogg, M. A., & Terry, D. J.Hogg, M. A., & Terry, D. J. (2001). Social identity theory and organizational processes. In M. A. Hogg & D. J. Terry (Eds.), Social identity processes in organizational contexts(pp. 1-12)Philadelphia: Psychology Press.
63.
Hsu, G., & Hannan, M. T. (2004). Identities, genres and organizational forms. Unpublished manuscript, University of California at Davis. Ibarra, H. (1999). Provisional selves: Experimenting with image and identity in professional adaptation. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44, 764-791.
64.
Kimberly, J. R. (1987). The study of organization: Toward a biographical perspective. In J. W. Lorsch (Ed.), Handbook of organizational behavior(pp. 223-237). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
65.
Kogut, B., & Zander, U. (1996). What firms do? Coordination, identity and learning. Organization Science, 7, 502-518.
66.
Leary, M. R., & Tangney, J. P. (2003). The self as an organizing construct in the behavioral and social sciences. In M. R. Leary & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), Handbook of self and identity(pp. 3-14)New York: Guildford.
67.
Lounsbury, M., & Glynn, M. A. (2001). Cultural entrepreneurship: Stories, legitimacy, and the acquisition of resources. Strategic Management Journal, 22, 545-564.
68.
Lounsbury, M., & Ventresca, M. J. (2002). Social structure and organizations revisited. Research in the sociology of organizations, 19, 3-36.
69.
March, J. G., & Simon, H. A. (1958). Organizations. New York: John Wiley.
70.
Markus, H., & Nurius, P. (1986). Possible selves. American Psychologist, 41, 954-969.
71.
Meyer, J. W., & Scott, R. W. (1983). Centralization and the legitimacy problems of local government. In J. W. Meyer & W. R. Scott (Eds.), Organizational environments: Ritual and Rationality(pp. 199-215). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
72.
Mischel, W., & Morf, C. C. (2003). The self as a psychosocial dynamic processing system: A meta-perspective on a century of the self in psychology. In M. R. Leary & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), Handbook of self and identity(pp. 15-44). New York: Guilford.
73.
Mohr, J. W., & Guerra-Pearson, F. (in press). The duality of niche and form: The differentiation of institutional space in New York City, 1888-1917. In W. Powell & D. Jones (Eds.), How institutions change. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
74.
Morgeson, F. P., & Hofmann, D. A. (1999). The structure and function of collective constructs: Implications for multilevel research and theory development. Academy of Management Review, 24, 249-265.
75.
Oxford American Dictionary. 1980. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. (p. 104-104).
76.
Paine, L. S. (1994, March). Managing for organizationalintegrity. Harvard Business Review, 106-117.
77.
Podolny, J. M. (1993). Astatus-based model of market competition. American Sociological Review, 98, 829-872.
78.
Pólos, L., Hannan, M. T., & Carroll, G. R. (2002). Foundations of a theory of social forms. Industrial and Corporate Change, 11(1), 85-115.
79.
Porac, J. F., Thomas, H., & Baden-Fuller, C. (1989). Competitive groups as cognitive communities: The case of Scottish knitwear manufacturers. Journal of Management Studies, 26, 397-416.
80.
Porac, J. F., Ventresca, M., & Mishina, Y. (2002). Interorganizational cognition and interpretation. In J. A. C. Baum (Ed.), The Blackwell companion to organization(pp. 599-620). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
81.
Porac, J. F., Wade, J., & Pollock, T. (1999). Industry categories and the politics of the comparable firm in CEO compensation. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44, 112-144.
82.
Powell, W. W., & DiMaggio, P. J. (1991). The new institutionalism in organizational analysis. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
83.
Pratt, M. G. (1998). To be or not to be? Central questions in organizational identification. In D. Whetten & P. Godfrey (Eds.), Identity in organizations: Developing theory through conversations(pp. 171-207). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
84.
Pratt, M. G. (2001). Social identity dynamics in modern organizations: An organizational psychology/organizational behavior perspective. In M. A. Hogg & D. J. Terry (Eds.), Social identity processes in organizational contexts(pp. 13-30)Philadelphia: Psychology Press.
85.
Pratt, M. G. (2003). Disentangling collective identity. In J. Polzer, E. Mannix, & M. Neale (Eds.), Identity Issues in Groups: Research in Managing Groups and Teams (Vol. V, pp. 161-188). Stamford, CT: Elsevier Science.
86.
Pratt, M. G., & Foreman, P. O. (2000). Classifying managerial responses to multiple organizational identities. Academy of Management Review, 25(1), 18-42.
87.
Rao, H., Davis, G. F., & Ward, A. (2000). Embeddedness, social identity and mobility: Why firms leave the NASDAQ and join the New York Stock Exchange. Administrative Science Quarterly, 45, 268-292.
88.
Rao, H., Monin, P., & Durand, R. (2003). Institutional change in Toque Ville: Nouvelle cuisine as an identity movement in French gastronomy. American Journal of Sociology, 108, 795-843.
89.
Ravasi, D., & Schultz, M. (2006). Responding to organizational identity threats: Exploring the role of organizational culture. Academy of Management Journal, 49, 433-458.
90.
Reger, R. K., & Huff, A. S. (1993). Strategic groups: A cognitive perspective. Strategic Management Journal, 14, 103-124.
91.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2003). On assimilating identities to the self: A self-determination theory perspective on internalization and integrity within cultures. In M. R. Leary & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), Handbook of self and identity(pp. 253-272). New York: Guilford.
92.
Salancik, G. R. (1977). Commitment and the control of organizational behavior and belief. In B. M. Staw & G. R. Salancik (Eds.), New directions in organizational behavior(pp. 1-54). Chicago: St. Clair.
93.
Schultz, J., Hatch, M. J., & Larsen, M. H. (2000). The expressive organization.Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
94.
Scott, W. R. (2001). Institutions and organizations(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
95.
Scott, W. R. (2003). Organizations: Rational, natural, and open systems.Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
96.
Selznick, P. (1957). Leadership in administration. New York: Harper & Row.
97.
Simon, H. A. (1997). Administrative behavior: A study of decision-making processes in administrative organizations(4th ed.). New York: Free Press.
98.
Soenen, G., & Moingeon, B. (2002). The five facets of collective identities: Integrating corporate and organizational identity. In G. Soenen & B. Moingeon (Eds.), Corporate and organizational identities: Integrating strategy, marketing, communication and organizational perspectives(pp. 13-34). New York: Routledge.
99.
Stets, J. E., & Burke, P. J. (2003). Asociological approach to self and identity. In M. R. Leary & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), Handbook of self and identity (pp. 128-152). New York: Guilford.
100.
Stinchcombe, A. L. (1965). Social structure and organizations. In J. G. March (Ed.), Handbook of organizations(pp. 142-193). Chicago: Rand McNally.
101.
Suchman, M. C. (1995). Managing legitimacy: Strategic and institutional approaches. Academy of Management Review, 20, 571-610.
102.
von Rekom, J., & Whetten, D. A. (2005). How beliefs about identity cohere: An inquiry into the relative roles of beliefs about essence, distinctiveness and continuity over time. Unpublished manuscript, Erasmus University, Rotterdam, the Netherlands.
103.
Walsh, J. P., & Ungson, G. R. (1991). Organizational memory. Academy of Management Review, 16, 57-91.
104.
Weick, K. E. (1995). Sensemaking in organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
105.
Whetten, D. A. (1998). Preface: Why organizational identity and why conversations? In D. A. Whetten & P. C. Godfrey (Eds.), Identity in organizations: Building theory through conversations(pp. vii-xi). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
106.
Whetten, D. A. (in press). The study of organizational identity: Applying social identity theory when social identities are also social actors. In C. A. Bartel, S. Blader, & A. Wrzesniewski (Eds.), Identity and the modern organization.Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
107.
Whetten, D. A., & Mackey, A. (2002). A social actor conception of organizational identity and its implications for the study of organizational reputation. Business & Society, 41(4), 393-414.
108.
Whetten, D. A., & Mackey, A. (2005). An identity-congruence explanation of consistently high corporate social performance ratings. Working paper, Marriott School of Management, Brigham Young University.
109.
White, H. C. (1992). Identity and control: A structural theory of action.Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
110.
Wilkins, A. L. (1989). Developing corporate character. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
111.
Zuckerman, E. W. (1999). The categorical imperative: Securities analysts and the illegitimacy discount. American Journal of Sociology, 104, 1398-1438.
