Impact of Self-Blame and Social Reactions on Adult Sexual Assault Sequelae

Abstract

This study examined the effects of self-blame attribution and social response after disclosure of sexual assault on the adult female victims’ trauma symptoms. The author applied a sequential explanatory mixed method and quantitatively analyzed the data from 81 women and subsequently conducted in-depth interviews with 10 women who experienced sexual assault in their adulthood. In the final stage, we integrated the two phases and interpreted how self-blame, family reactions, response from institutions, and rape myths affect the sequelae of the victims of sexual assault. This study provides a comprehensive understanding of the relationship and impact of individual and social contextual factors of sexual assault sequelae.

Keywords

sequential explanatory mixed method sexual assault self-blame social reactions sociocultural context

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Ahrens

C. E.

Cabral

Abeling

(2009). Healing or hurtful: Sexual assault victims’ interpretations of social reactions from support providers. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 33(1), 81–94. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2008.01476.x

Ahrens

C. E.

Stansell

Jennings

(2010). To tell or not to tell: The impact of disclosure on sexual assault victims’ recovery. Violence and Victims, 25(5), 631–648. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.25.5.631

Allred

S. K.

(2007). Multiple levels of influence on the sexual assault victim: Examining the relationship of sexist beliefs, social reactions, and self-blame on recovery. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, College of Education and the Graduate School of the University of Oregon.

Arata

C. M.

(1999). Coping with rape: The roles of prior sexual abuse and attributions of blame. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 14(1), 62–78. https://doi.org/10.1177/088626099014001004

Banyard

V. L.

Williams

L. M.

Siegel

J. A.

(2001). The long-term mental health consequences of child sexual abuse: An exploratory study of the impact of multiple traumas in a sample of women. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 14(4), 697–715. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013085904337

Braun

Clarke

(2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa

Breitenbecher

K. H.

(2006). The relationships among self-blame, psychological distress, and sexual victimization. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21(5), 597–611. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260506286842

Burt

M. R.

(1980). Cultural myths and supports for rape. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38(2), 217–230. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.38.2.217

Campbell

Dworkin

Cabral

G. L.

(2009). An ecological model of the impact of sexual assault on women’s mental health. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 10(3), 225–246. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838009334456

10.

Campbell

Ahrens

C. E.

Sefl

Wasco

S. M.

Barnes

H. E.

(2001a). Social reactions to rape victims: Healing and hurtful effects on psychological and physical health outcomes. Violence and Victims, 16(3), 287–301. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.16.3.287

11.

Campbell

Patterson

Bybee

(2011). Using mixed methods to evaluate a community intervention for sexual assault survivors: A methodological tale. Violence Against Women, 17(3), 376–388. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801211398622

12.

Campbell

Sefl

Barnes

H. E.

Ahrens

C. E.

Wasco

S. M.

Zaragoza-Diesfeld

(1999). Community services for rape survivors: Enhancing psychological well-being or increasing trauma? Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67(6), 847–858. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.67.6.847

13.

Campbell

Wasco

S. M.

Ahrens

C. E.

Sefl

Barnes

H. E.

(2001b). Preventing the “Second rape” rape survivors’ experiences with community service providers. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 16(12), 1239–1259. https://doi.org/10.1177/088626001016012005

14.

Creswell

J. W.

(2006). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. Sage Publications.

15.

Creswell

J. W.

Plano-Clark

V. L.

(2007). Designing and conducting mixed methods research. Thousand Oaks.

16.

Creswell

J. W.

Plano-Clark

V. L.

(2010). Designing and conducting mixed methods research. Thousand Oaks.

17.

Dawtry

R. J.

Cozzolino

P. J.

Callan

M. J.

(2019). I blame therefore it was: Rape myth acceptance, victim blaming, and memory reconstruction. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 45(8), 1269–1282. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167218818475

18.

Devdas

N. R.

Rubin

L. J.

(2007). Rape myth acceptance among first-and second-generation south Asian American women. Sex Roles, 56, 701–705. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-007-9209-1

19.

Elliot

D. M.

Briere

(1992). Sexual abuse trauma among professional women: Validating the Trauma Symptom Checklist 40 (TSC-40). Child Abuse & Neglect, 16(3), 391–398. https://doi.org/10.1016/0145-2134(92)90048-V

20.

Feiring

Taska

Chen

(2002). Trying to understand why horrible things happen: Attribution, shame, and symptom development following sexual abuse. Child Maltreatment, 7(1), 25–39. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559502007001003

21.

Frazier

P. A.

(1990). Victim attributions and post-rape trauma. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59(2), 298–304. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.59.2.298

22.

Frese

Moya

Megías

J. L.

(2004). Social perception of rape: How rape myth acceptance modulates the influence of situational factors. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 19(2), 143–161. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605032602

23.

Graham

Rogers

Davies

(2007). Attributions in a hypothetical child sexual abuse case: Roles of abuse type, family response and respondent gender. Journal of Family Violence, 22(8), 733–745. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-007-9121-z

24.

Harvey

M. R.

(1996). An ecological view of psychological trauma and trauma recovery. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9(1), 3–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.2490090103

25.

Ivankova

N. V.

Creswell

J. W.

Stick

S. L.

(2006). Using mixed-methods sequential explanatory design: From theory to practice. Field Methods, 18(1), 3–20. https://doi.org/10.1177/1525822X0528226

26.

Janoff-Bulman

(1979). Characterological versus behavioral self-blame: Inquiries into depression and rape. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(10), 1798–1809. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.37.10.1798

27.

Jones

J. S.

Rossman

Wynn

B. N.

Dunnuck

Schwartz

(2003). Comparative analysis of adult versus adolescent sexual assault: Epidemiology and patterns of anogenital injury. Academic Emergency Medicine, 10(8), 872–877. https://doi.org/10.1197/aemj.10.8.872

28.

Kaukinen

DeMaris

(2005). Age at first sexual assault and current substance use and depression. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20(10), 1244–1270. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260505277732

29.

Kennedy

M. A.

Gorzalka

B. B.

(2002). Asian and non-Asian attitudes toward rape, sexual harassment, and sexuality. Sex Roles, 46, 227–238. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020145815129

30.

Koss

M. P.

Gidycz

C. A.

(1985). Sexual experiences survey: Reliability and validity. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53(3), 422–423. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.53.3.422

31.

Lee

SJ.

(1999). Development of a rape myths scale. Korean Journal of Social and Personality Psychology, 13(2), 131–148.

32.

Littleton

(2010). The impact of social support and negative disclosure reactions on sexual assault victims: A cross-sectional and longitudinal investigation. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 11(2), 210–227. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299730903502946

33.

Littleton

Breitkopf

C. R.

(2006). Coping with the experience of rape. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30(1), 106–116. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2006.00267.x

34.

Long

L. M.

Ullman

S. E.

Starzynski

L. L.

Long

S. M.

Mason

G. E.

(2007). Age and educational differences in African American women's sexual assault experiences. Feminist Criminology, 2(2), 117–136. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557085106296583

35.

Lonsway

K. A.

Fitzgerald

L. F.

(1994). Rape myths: In review. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18(2), 133–164. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1994.tb00448.x

36.

Luo

T. Y.

(2000). “Marrying my rapist?!” The cultural trauma among Chinese rape victims. Gender & Society, 14(4), 581–597. https://doi.org/10.1177/08912430001400400

37.

Meyer

C. B.

Taylor

S. E.

(1986). Adjustment to rape. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50(6), 1226–1234. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.50.6.1226

38.

Mullen

P. E.

Martin

J. L.

Anderson

J. C.

Romans

S. E.

Herbison

G. P.

(1994). The effect of child sexual abuse on social, interpersonal and sexual function in adult life. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 165(1), 35–47. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.165.1.35

39.

Neville

H. A.

Heppner

M. J.

(1999). Contextualizing rape: Reviewing sequelae and proposing a culturally inclusive ecological model of sexual assault recovery. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 8(1), 41–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0962-1849(99)80010-9

40.

Neville

(2004). Development and validation of the Korean rape myth acceptance scale. The Counseling Psychologist, 32(2), 301–331. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000003261351

41.

Orchowski

L. M.

Gidycz

C. A.

(2012). To whom do college women confide following sexual assault? A prospective study of predictors of sexual assault disclosure and social reactions. Violence Against Women, 18(3), 264–288. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801212442917

42.

Park

(2006). The sexual assault victimization and suicide ideation: Mediating effects of coping strategies, attributional style in female university students. The Korean Journal of Woman Psychology, 11(3), 327–344. UCI : G704-001075.2006.11.3.002

43.

Resick

R. A.

(1989). Reactions of female and male victims of rape and robbery (Final report, grant #85-IJ-CX-0042). National Institute of Justice.

44.

Shriner

M. K.

(1999). The effect of social support, coping strategies and assault characteristics on the psychological adjustment of sexual assault victims. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Florida State University.

45.

Spohn

C. C.

(1994). A comparison of sexual assault cases with child and adult victims. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 3(4), 59–78.

46.

Steenkamp

M. M.

(2011). Trajectories of early adjustment to sexual assault. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Boston University Graduate School of Arts and Sciences.

47.

Tashakkori

Teddlie

(2003). The past and future of mixed methods research: From data triangulation to mixed model designs. In Handbook of mixed methods in social & behavioral research (pp. 671–701). Thousand Oaks.

48.

Testa

Livingston

J. A.

VanZile-Tamsen

(2011). Advancing the study of violence against women using mixed methods: Integrating qualitative methods into a quantitative research program. Violence Against Women, 17(2), 236–250. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801210397744

49.

Ullman

S. E.

(1996). Social reactions, coping strategies, and self-blame attributions in adjustment to sexual assault. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20(4), 505–526. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1996.tb00319.x

50.

Ullman

S. E.

(1999). Social support and recovery from sexual assault: A review. Aggression and Behavior, 4(3), 343–358. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1359-1789(98)00006-8

51.

Ullman

S. E.

(2000). Psychometric characteristics of the social reactions questionnaire: A measure of reactions to sexual assault victims. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24(3), 257–271. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2000.tb00208.x

52.

Ullman

S. E.

(2001). Predictors of PTSD symptom severity and social reactions in sexual assault victims. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 14(2), 369–389. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011125220522

53.

Ullman

S. E.

Filipas

H. H.

(2001). Correlates of formal and informal support seeking in sexual assault victims. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 16(10), 1028–1047. https://doi.org/10.1177/088626001016010004

54.

Ullman

S. E.

Filipas

H. H.

Townsend

S. M.

Starzynski

L. L.

(2006). The role of victim-offender relationships in women’s sexual assault experiences. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21(6), 798–819. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260506288590

55.

Ullman

S. E.

Filipas

H. H.

Townsend

S. M.

Starzynski

L. L.

(2007). Psychosocial correlates of PTSD symptom severity in sexual assault victims. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20(5), 821–831. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20290

56.

Valentiner

D. P.

Foa

E. B.

Riggs

D. S.

Gershuny

B. S.

(1996). Coping strategies and posttraumatic stress disorder in female victims of sexual and nonsexual assault. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 105(3), 455–458. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.105.3.455

57.

Wasco

S. M.

(2003). Conceptualizing the harm done by rape: Applications of trauma theory to experiences of sexual assault. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 4(4), 309–322. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838003256560

58.

Won

(2008). The construction of psycho-adaptation model for the survived victims of sexual violence. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Kyung Hee university in Republic of Korea.

59.

Xue

Fang

Huang

Cui

Rhodes

K. V.

Gelles

(2019). Rape myths and the cross-cultural adaptation of the Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale in China. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34(7), 1428–1460. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516651315