A cluster randomized design was used to investigate the effects of the Story Friends vocabulary curriculum on learning of 84 preschoolers in 24 classrooms who were at risk for language difficulties. Children in the treatment condition received explicit vocabulary instruction of 36 words during small-group storybook listening centers with extended practice opportunities in the classroom and at home. Children in the comparison condition were exposed to the same words in stories without explicit instruction or extended practice. Children (n = 16) with average or above language skills from six treatment classrooms were included to examine the impact of extended practice. Children at risk in treatment classrooms learned significantly more words (52%) than children at risk in comparison classrooms (12%). Children not at risk learned vocabulary equal to children at risk. A tiered approach to implementing Story Friends appears feasible for enhancing the vocabulary learning of preschoolers with and without language delays.
BaayenR. H.DavidsonD. J.BatesD. M. (2008). Mixed-effects modeling with crossed random effects for subjects and items. Journal of Memory and Language, 59(4), 390–412. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2007.12.005
2.
BeckI. L.McKeownM. G. (2007). Increasing young low-income children’s oral vocabulary repertoires through rich and focused instruction. Elementary School Journal, 107(3), 251–271. https://doi.org/10.1086/511706
3.
BeckI. L.McKeownM. G.KucanL. (2013). Bringing words to life: Robust vocabulary instruction (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
4.
CattsH. W.AdlofS. M.WeismerS. E. (2006). Language deficits in poor comprehenders: A case for the simple view of reading. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 49(2), 278–293. https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2006/023)
5.
CohenJ. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum.
6.
CollinsM. F. (2010). ELL preschoolers’ English vocabulary acquisition from storybook reading. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 25(1), 84–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2009.07.009
7.
CoyneM. D.McCoachD. B.KappS. (2007). Vocabulary intervention for kindergarten students: Comparing extended instruction to embedded instruction and incidental exposure. Learning Disability Quarterly, 30(2), 74–88. https://doi.org/10.2307/30035543
8.
CoyneM. D.McCoachD. B.LoftusS.ZipoliR.KappS. (2009). Direct vocabulary instruction in kindergarten: Teaching for breadth versus depth. The Elementary School Journal, 110(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1086/598840
9.
CoyneM. D.McCoachD. B.LoftusS.ZipoliR.RubyM.CrevecoeurY. C.KappS. (2010). Direct and extended vocabulary instruction in kindergarten: Investigating transfer effects. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 3(2), 93–120. https://doi.org/10.1080/193457410035924100
10.
CoyneM. D.McCoachD. B.WareS.AustinC. R.Loftus-RattanS. M.BakerD. L. (2019). Racing against the vocabulary gap: Matthew effects in early vocabulary instruction and intervention. Exceptional Children, 85(2), 163–179. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402918789162
11.
CurranG.BauerM.MittmanB.PyneJ. M.StetlerC. (2012). Effectiveness-implementation hybrid designs: Combining elements of clinical effectiveness and implementation research to enhance public health impact. Medical Care, 50(3), 217–226. https://doi.org/10.1097/MLR.0b013e3182408812
12.
DaneA. V.SchneiderB. H. (1998). Program integrity in primary and earlysecondary prevention: Are implementation effects out of control?Clinical Psychology Review, 18(1), 23–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-7358(97)00043-3
13.
DickinsonD. K. (2011). Teachers’ language practices and academic outcomes of preschool children. Science, 333(6045), 964–967. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1204526
14.
DunnL. M.DunnD. M. (2007). Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test - 4 (4th ed.). NCS Pearson Assessments.
15.
DwyerJ.HarbaughA. G. (2020). Where and when is support for vocabulary development occurring in preschool classrooms?Journal of Early Childhood Literacy, 20(2), 252–295. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468798418763990
16.
EllemanA. M.LindoE. J.MorphyP.ComptonD. L. (2009). The impact of vocabulary instruction on passage level comprehension of school-age children: A meta-analysis. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 2(1), 1–44. https://doi.org/10.1080/19345740802539200
17.
ElwérÅ.KeenanJ. M.OlsonR. K.ByrneB.SamuelssonS. (2013). Longitudinal stability and predictors of poor oral comprehenders and poor decoders. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 115(3), 497–516. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2012.12.001
18.
FriendM.SmolakE.LiuY.Poulin-DuboisD.ZesigerP. (2018). A cross-language study of decontextualized vocabulary comprehension in toddlerhood and kinergarten readiness. Developmental Psychology, 54(7), 1317–1333. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000514
19.
GoldsteinH.KelleyE. S. (2016). Story friends teacher guide. Paul H. Brookes.
20.
GoldsteinH.KelleyE. S.GreenwoodC.McCuneL.CartaJ.AtwaterJ.GuerreroG.McCarthyT.SchneiderN.SpencerT. (2016). Embedded instruction improves vocabulary learning during automated storybook reading among high-risk preschoolers. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 59(3), 484–500. https://doi.org/10.1044/2015_JSLHR-L-15-0227
21.
GoldsteinH.ZiolkowskiR. A.BojczykK. E.MartyA.SchneiderN.HarpringJ.HaringC. D. (2017). Academic vocabulary learning in first through third grade in low-income schools: Effects of automated supplemental instruction. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 60(11), 3237–3258. https://doi.org/10.1044/2017_JSLHR-L-17-0100
22.
GolinkoffR. M.HoffE.RoweM. L.Tamis-LeMondaC. S.Hirsh-PasekK. (2019). Language matters: Denying the existence of the 30-million-word gap has serious consequences. Child Development, 90(3), 985–992. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13128
23.
GreenwoodC. R.CartaJ. J.AtwaterJ.GoldsteinH.KaminskiR.McConnellS. (2013). Is a response to intervention (RTI) approach to preschool language and early literacy instruction needed?Topics Early Childhood Special Education, 33(1), 48–64. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121412455438
24.
HadleyE. B.DickinsonD. K. (2020). Measuring young children’s word knowledge: A conceptual review. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy, 20(2), 223–251. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468798417753713
25.
HadleyE. B.DickinsonD. K.Hirsh-PasekK.GolinkoffR. M. (2018). Building semantic networks: The impact of a vocabulary intervention on preschoolers’ depth of word knowledge. Reading Research Quarterly, 54(1), 41–61. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.225
26.
HadleyE. B.DickinsonD. K.Hirsh-PasekK.GolinkoffR. M.NesbittK. T. (2016). Examining the acquisition of vocabulary knowledge depth among preschool students. Reading Research Quarterly, 51(2), 181–198. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.130
27.
HartB.RisleyT. R. (1995). Meaningful differences in the everyday experiences of young American children. Paul H. Brookes.
28.
HeidlageJ. K.CunninghamJ. E.KaiserA. P.TrivetteC. M.BartonE. E.FreyJ. R.RobertsM. Y. (2020). The effects of parent-implemented language interventions on child linguistic outcomes: A meta-analysis. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 50(1), 6–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.12.006
29.
HullemanC. S.CordrayD. S. (2009). Moving from the lab to the field: The role of fidelity and achieved relative intervention strength. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 2(1), 88–110. https://doi.org/10.1080/19345740802539325
30.
JusticeL. M.MashburnA. J.HamreB. K.PiantaR. C. (2008). Quality of language and literacy instruction in preschool classrooms serving at-risk pupils. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 23(1), 51–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2007.09.004
31.
JusticeL. M.MashburnA. J.PenceK. L.WigginsA. (2008). Experimental evaluation of a preschool language curriculum: Influence on children’s expressive language skills. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 51(4), 983–1001. https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2008/072)
32.
KaderavekJ. N.JusticeL. (2010). Fidelity: An essential component of evidence-based practice in speech-language pathology. American Journal of Speech Language Pathology, 19(4), 369–379. https://doi.org/10.1044/1058-0360(2010/09-0097)
33.
KelleyE. S.BarkerR. M.Peters-SandersL.MadsenK.SevenY.SotoX.OlsenW.HullK.GoldsteinH. (2020). Feasible implementation strategies for improving vocabulary knowledge of high-risk preschoolers: Results from a cluster-randomized trial. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 63(12), 4000–4017. https://doi.org/10.1044/2020_JSLHR-20-00316
34.
KelleyE. S.GoldsteinH. (2014). Building a tier 2 intervention: A glimpse behind the data. Journal of Early Intervention, 36(4), 292–312. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053815115581657
35.
KelleyE. S.GoldsteinH.SpencerT. D.ShermanA. (2015). Effects of automated Tier 2 storybook intervention on vocabulary and comprehension learning in preschool children with limited oral language skills. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 31, 47–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2014.12.004
36.
Language and Reading Research Consortium. (2015). Learning to read: Should we keep things simple?Reading Research Quarterly, 50(2), 151–169. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.99
37.
Language Reading Research Consortium & Logan, J. (2017). Pressure points in reading comprehension: A quantile multiple regression analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 109(4), 451–464. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000150
38.
LoftusS. M.CoyneM. D.McCoachD. B.ZipoliR.PullenP. C. (2010). Effects of a supplemental vocabulary intervention on the word knowledge of kindergarten students at risk for language and literacy difficulties. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 25(3), 124–136. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5826.2010.00310.x
39.
Loftus-RattanS. M.MitchellA. M.CoyneM. D. (2016). Direct vocabulary instruction in preschool: A comparison of extended instruction, embedded instruction, and incidental exposure. The Elementary School Journal, 116(3), 391–410. https://doi.org/10.1086/684828
40.
McKeownM. G.BeckI. L. (2014). Effects of vocabulary instruction on measures of language processing: Comparing two approaches. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 29(4), 520–530. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2014.06.002
41.
MendezL. I.CraisE. R.CastroD. C.KainzK. (2015). A culturally and linguistically responsive vocabulary approach for young Latino dual language learners. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 58(1), 93–106. https://doi.org/10.1044/2014_JSLHR-L-12-0221
42.
MorganP. L.FarkasG.HillemeierM. M.HammerC. S.MaczugaS. (2015). 24-month-old children with larger oral vocabularies display greater academic and behavioral functioning at kindergarten entry. Child Development, 86(5), 1351–1370. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12398
43.
National Reading Panel. (2000). Report of the National reading panel: Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. US Government Printing Office.
44.
NelsonK. E.WelshJ. A.TrupE. M. V.GreenbergM. T. (2011). Language delays of impoverished preschool children in relation to early academic and emotion recognition skills. First Language, 31(2), 164–194. https://doi.org/10.1177/0142723710391887
45.
NeugebauerS.CoyneM.McCoachB.WareS. (2017). Teaching beyond the intervention: The contribution of teacher language extensions to vocabulary learning in urban kindergarten classrooms. Reading and Writing, 30, 543–567. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-016-9689-x
46.
NeumanS.DwyerJ. (2009). Missing in action: Vocabulary instruction in pre-k. The Reading Teacher, 62(5), 384–392. https://doi.org/10.1598/RT.62.5.2
47.
PelattiC. Y.PiastaS. B.JusticeL. M.O’ConnellA. A. (2014). Language- and literacy-learning opportunities in early childhood classrooms: Children’s typical experiences and within-classroom variability. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 29(4), 445–456. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2014.05.004
48.
PennoJ. F.WilkinsonI. A. G.MooreD. W. (2002). Vocabulary acquisition from teacher explanation and repeated listening to stories: Do they overcome the Matthew effect?Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(1), 23–33. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-0663.94.1.23
49.
Peters-SandersL.KelleyE.HaringC.MadsenK.SotoX.SevenY.HullK.GoldsteinH. (2020). Moving forward four words at a time: Effects of a supplemental preschool vocabulary intervention. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 51(1), 165–175. https://doi.org/10.1044/2019_LSHSS-19-00029
50.
PiastaS. B.JusticeL. M.McGintyA.MashburnA.SlocumL. (2015). A comprehensive examination of preschool teachers’ implementation fidelity when using a supplemental language and literacy curriculum. Child Youth Care Forum, 44, 731–755. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-015-9305-2
51.
PullenP. C.TuckwillerE. D.KonoldT. R.MaynardK. L.CoyneM. D. (2010). A tiered intervention model for early vocabulary instruction: The effects of tiered instruction for young students at risk for reading disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 25(3), 110–123. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5826.2010.00309.x
52.
QuinnJ. M.WagnerR. K.PetscherY.LopezD. (2015). Developmental relations between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension: A latent change score modeling study. Child Development, 86(1), 159–175. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12292
53.
RestrepoM. A.MorganG. P.ThompsonM. S. (2013). The efficacy of a vocabulary intervention for dual language learners with language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 56(2), 748–765. https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2012/11-0173)
54.
SevenY.HullK.MadsenK.FerronJ.Peters-SandersL.SotoX.KelleyE. S.GoldsteinH. (2020). Classwide extensions of vocabulary intervention improve learning of academic vocabulary by preschoolers. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 63(1), 173–189. https://doi.org/10.1044/2019_JSLHR-19-00052
55.
SilvermanR. (2007). A comparison of three methods of vocabulary instruction during read-alouds in kindergarten. The Elementary School Journal, 108(2), 97–113. https://doi.org/10.1086/525549
56.
SilvermanR.CrandellJ. D.CarlisL. (2013). Read alouds and beyond: The effects of read aloud extension activities on vocabulary in Head Start classrooms. Early Education and Development, 24(2), 98–122. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2011.649679
57.
SotoX.SevenY.McKennaM.MadsenK.Peters-SandersL.KelleyE. S.GoldsteinH. (2020). Iterative development of a home review program to promote preschoolers’ vocabulary skills: Social validity and learning outcomes. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 51(2), 371–389. https://doi.org/10.1044/2019_LSHSS-19-00011
58.
SperryD. E.SperryL. L.MillerP. J. (2019). Reexamining the verbal environments of children from different socioeconomic backgrounds. Child Development, 90(4), 1303–1318. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13072
59.
SuggateS.SchaughencyE.McAnallyH.ReeseE. (2018). From infancy to adolescence: The longitudinal links between vocabulary, early literacy skills, oral narrative, and reading comprehension. Cognitive Development, 47, 82–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev.2018.04.005
60.
TunmerW. E.ChapmanJ. W. (2012). The Simple View of Reading redux: Vocabulary knowledge and the independent components hypothesis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 45(5), 453–466. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219411432685
61.
Vernon-FeagansL.Bratsch-HinesM.ReynoldsE.WilloughbyM. (2020). How early language input varies by race and education and predicts later child language. Child Development, 91(4), 1098–1115. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13281
62.
WasikB. A.HindmanA. H.SnellE. K. (2016). Book reading and vocabulary development: A systematic review. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 37, 39–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2016.04.003
63.
WiigE. H.SecordW. A.SemelE. (2004). Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals Preschool-2 (2nd ed.). Harcourt Assessment.
64.
WrightT. S.NeumanS. B. (2014). Paucity and disparity in kindergarten oral vocabulary instruction. Journal of Literacy Research, 46(3), 330–357. https://doi.org/10.1177/1086296X14551474
65.
ZuckerT. A.SolariE. J.LandryS. H.SwankP. R. (2013). Effects of a brief tiered language intervention for prekindergartners at risk. Early Education & Development, 24(3), 366–392. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2012.664763
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
