Objectives: Self-efficacy is a key construct in social work education, shaping students’ confidence and preparedness for professional practice. This study validated the social work self-efficacy (SWSE) for online education, expanding its application to a growing population of students in virtual learning environments. Method: A three-factor structure was identified using regularized exploratory factor analysis (REFA): client engagement and assessment, clinician ethical practice and professional growth, and evidence-based intervention. Communalities (h2) confirmed substantial shared variance supporting the model's reliability. Results: The REFA model confirmed substantial h2 and alignment with Bandura's self-efficacy theory, focusing on mastery, reflection, and learning. Conclusions: By validating this scale for online students, the study provides a tool for educators to assess and support student development across diverse learning modalities. This work expands the scale's applicability, offering insights for refining social work curricula to foster the self-efficacy needed for professional competence in evolving educational settings.
AhmadT. (2020). Scenario based approach to re-imagining future of higher education which prepares students for the future of work. Higher Education, Skills and Work-Based Learning, 10(1), 217–238. https://doi.org/10.1108/HESWBL-12-2018-0136
2.
AlkışS.TemizelT. T. (2018). The impact of motivation and personality traits on academic performance in online learning environments. Educational Technology & Society, 21(3), 35–47.
3.
AllemangB.DimitropoulosG.CollinsT.GillP.FultonA.McLaughlinA. M.AyalaJ.BlaugC.Judge-StasiakA.LetkemannL. (2022). Role plays to enhance readiness for practicum: Perceptions of graduate and undergraduate social work students. Journal of Social Work Education, 58(4), 652–666. https://doi.org/10.1080/10437797.2021.1957735
4.
AllenI. E.SeamanJ. (2017). Digital compass learning: Distance education enrollment report 2017.Babson Survey Research Group.
5.
AsakuraK.BogoM. (2021). The use of simulation in advancing clinical social work education and practice. Clinical Social Work Journal, 49(2), 111–116. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10615-021-00810-2
6.
BanchK. R.StevensonR.MathiesonK. (2020). Enhancing self-efficacy through structured simulation-based education: A mixed-methods study. Clinical Simulation in Nursing, 42, 17–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecns.2019.12.007
BanduraA. (1994). Self-efficacy. In RamachaudranV. S. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 71–81). Academic Press.
9.
BanduraA. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman and Company.
10.
BogoM.KatzC. E.RawlingsM.LogieC. H. (2014). Using simulation in assessment and teaching: OSCE adapted for social work. Council on Social Work Education.
11.
BogoM.RegehrC.PowerR.RegehrG. (2007). When values collide: Field instructors’ experiences of providing feedback and evaluating competence. The Clinical Supervisor, 26(1–2), 99–117. https://doi.org/10.1300/J001v26n01_08
12.
BraggJ. E.Miller-CribbsJ.GordonJ.GaudetJ.HellmanC.MunozR. T. (2017). Increasing self-efficacy and building hope through simulation based education. International Journal of Arts & Sciences, 02(10), 549–588.
13.
BraggJ. E.MunozR. T.Miller-CribbsJ.HellmanC.SubramaniamM. (2020). Online learning and student self-efficacy during the COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Arts & Sciences, 13(2), 75–92.
14.
CarterK.SwankeJ.StonichJ.TaylorS.WitzkeM.BinetschM. (2018). Student assessment of self-efficacy and practice readiness following simulated instruction in an undergraduate social work program. Journal of Teaching in Social Work, 38(1), 28–42. https://doi.org/10.1080/08841233.2018.1430095
ChernikovaO.HeitzmannN.StadlerM.HolzbergerD.SeidelT.FischerF. (2020). Simulation-based learning in higher education: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 90(4), 499–541. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654320933544
17.
CollinsS.CoffeyM.MorrisL. (2010). Social work students: Stress, support and well-being. The British Journal of Social Work, 40(3), 963–982. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcn148
18.
DuddingC. D.BrownD. K.EstisJ. M.SzymanskiC.ZraickR.MormerE. (2019). Best practices in healthcare simulations in communication sciences and disorders guide. Council of Academic Programs in Communication Sciences and Disorders.
19.
ElliottH.BrumbaughK. (2021). Student perceptions of a simulated clinical experience: A pilot study. Teaching and Learning in Communication Sciences & Disorders, 5(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.30707/TLCSD5.1.1624982519.538001
20.
GaleJ.GoodyearM.WeinstockL.AfifiT. D. (2021). Risk and resilience among young adults with parents with mental health or substance use problems: A review of the literature. Emerging Adulthood, 9(6), 573–586. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696820933102
21.
GarsonG. D. (2022). Factor analysis and dimension reduction in R: A social scientist’s toolkit (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003279693
22.
GatesS. A.BrownJ. R. (2017). Preparing nursing and social work students to care for patients in acute alcohol withdrawal. Journal of Addictions Nursing, 28(3), 143–147. https://doi.org/10.1097/JAN.0000000000000178
23.
GittermanA.GermainC. B. (2008). The life model of social work practice: Advances in theory and practice. Columbia University Press.
24.
GredigD.Bartelsen-RaemyA.HaringC.VollP. (2022). Professional self-efficacy in social work: Development and psychometric testing of a new scale. Journal of Social Work, 22(2), 413–432. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468017320949184
25.
HaiderS.FlynnA.SimpsonJ. E. (2024). Attitude and readiness of utilizing virtual reality simulations in interprofessional education to facilitate prompt and safe hospital discharges in England. Social Work Education, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/02615479.2024.2336105
26.
HallingerP.WangR. (2019). The evolution of simulation-based learning across the disciplines, 1965–2018: A science map of the literature. Simulation & Gaming, 51(1), 9–32. https://doi.org/10.1177/1046878119888246
27.
HitchcockL. I.PetersonD. T.DebiasiL.ShipmanS.VarleyA.WhiteM. L. (2018). Learning about poverty through simulation: A pilot evaluation. Journal of Social Work Education, 54(3), 517–531. https://doi.org/10.1080/10437797.2018.1434427
28.
HoldenG.BarkerK.KuppensS. (2022). The Evaluation Self-Efficacy Scale – III. In European social work education and practice.Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-13528-6_8
29.
HoldenG.BarkerK.KuppensS.RosenbergG. (2015). Self-efficacy regarding social work competencies. Research on Social Work Practice, 27(5), 594–606. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731515586466
30.
HoldenG.BarkerK.KuppensS.RosenbergG. (2017). Self-efficacy regarding social work competencies. Research on Social Work Practice, 27(5), 594–606.
31.
HoldenC.EnglishJ.HoareC.JordanA.KownackiS.TurnbullR.StaughtonR. (2002). Advised best practice for the use of emollients in eczema and other dry skin conditions. Journal of Dermatological Treatment, 13(3), 103–106. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546630260199442
32.
Holden, G., Meenaghan, T., Anastas, J. & Metrey, G. (2002). Outcomes of social work education: The case for social work self-efficacy. Journal of Social Work Education, 38(1), 115–133.
33.
HülshegerU. R.AlbertsH. J.FeinholdtA.LangJ. W. (2013). Benefits of mindfulness at work: The role of mindfulness in emotion regulation, emotional exhaustion, and job satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology, 98(2), 310.
34.
HuttarC. M.BrintzenhofeSzocK. (2020). Virtual reality and computer simulation in social work education: A systematic review. Journal of Social Work Education, 56(1), 131–141. https://doi.org/10.1080/10437797.2019.1648221
35.
JungS. (2013). Exploratory factor analysis with small sample sizes: A comparison of three approaches. Behavioural Processes, 97, 90–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2012.11.016
KeeneyA. J.LeeA.JayyousiS.YoungJ. A.GuarinoJ.TurnerK. B. (2022). Social work students’ self-efficacy toward direct practice skills in field education using virtual simulations and scripted role plays. Advances in Social Work, 22(2), 303–317. https://doi.org/10.18060/24929
38.
LaneC.RollnickS. (2007). The use of simulated patients and role-play in communication skills training: A review of the literature to August 2005. Patient Education and Counseling, 67(1–2), 13–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pec.2007.02.011
39.
Lee, J., Hernandez, P. M., & Marshall Jr, I. (2019). (2019). Review of online education in social work programs. Journal of Evidence-Based Social Work, 16(6), 669–686.
40.
MacLeodT.NelsonJ. M.McKinneyA. R. (2022). Virtual field experiences in social work education: Impact on student self-efficacy. Journal of Social Work Education, 58(1), 127–141. https://doi.org/10.1080/10437797.2021.1885780
41.
MadduxJ. E.KleimanE. M. (2020). Self-efficacy. In GallagherM. W.LopezS. J. (Eds.), Positive psychological assessment: A handbook of models and measures(2nd ed., pp. 177–189). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000207-014
42.
MagillM.MastroleoN. R.KuerbisA.SaccoP.Thombs-CainG. E.WagnerE. F.VelasquezM. M. (2022). Practice makes perfect: MSW students reflect on skill-based teaching methods in clinical social work education. Journal of Social Work Education, 59(4), 991–1008. https://doi.org/10.1080/10437797.2022.2103605
43.
MeansB.BakiaM.MurphyR. (2014). Learning online: What research tells us about whether, when and how (1st ed.). Taylor and Francis. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203095959
44.
Nowakowski-SimsE.KumarS. (2021). Advocacy self-efficacy and role identity among social work students: Development and validation of an instrument. Journal of Social Work Education, 57(2), 265–279. https://doi.org/10.1080/10437797.2020.1764204
45.
Pedrazza, M., Trifiletti, E., Berlanda, S., & Di Bernardo, G. A. (2013). Self-efficacy in social work: Development and initial validation of the self-efficacy scale for social workers. Social Sciences, 2(3), 191–207.
46.
PetracchiH. E.CollinsK. S. (2006). Utilizing actors to simulate clients in social work student role plays. Journal of Teaching in Social Work, 26(1–2), 223–233. https://doi.org/10.1300/J067v26n01_13
47.
SchunkD. H.DiBenedettoM. K. (2021a). Motivation and social-emotional learning: Theory, research, and practice. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 66–67. Article 101976. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2021.101976
48.
SchunkD. H.DiBenedettoM. K. (2021b). Self-efficacy and human motivation. In ElliotA. J. (Ed.), Advances in motivation science (Vol. 8, pp. 153–179). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.adms.2020.12.003
49.
SteadA.MichaelP.OndoK. (2022). Student navigation through computer-based simulations: What predicts success?Teaching and Learning in Communication Sciences & Disorders, 6(1), 1–10.
50.
TaplayK.JackS. M.BaxterP.EvaK.MartinL. (2015). The process of adopting and incorporating simulation into undergraduate nursing curricula: A grounded theory study. Journal of Professional Nursing, 31(1), 26–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.profnurs.2014.05.005
51.
TravisD. J.LizanoE. L.Mor BarakM. E. (2016). I’m so stressed!”: A longitudinal model of stress, burnout and engagement among social workers in child welfare settings. The British Journal of Social Work, 46(4), 1076–1095. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bct205
52.
TuffordL.AsakuraK.BogoM. (2018). Simulation versus role-play: Perceptions of prepracticum BSW students. Journal of Baccalaureate Social Work, 23(1), 249–267. https://doi.org/10.18084/1084-7219.23.1.249
53.
Van Kampen-BreitD.CampbellM.GouldR.GlaesserR. (2017). Understanding student perspectives on self-efficacy, scholarship & library research in graduate social work distance learning: A pilot study. Internet Reference Services Quarterly, 22(4), 167–179.
