Despite interest in collecting occupational health and safety data to protect high-risk workers such as firefighters, there is limited research on public policies governing this data. We reviewed policies impacting firefighter occupational health and safety data. We identified laws, regulations, and union contracts at the federal level, and in Maryland and Virginia. We collected data using secondary sources and Westlaw (March–May 2023). We reviewed 20 laws and regulations: nine federal, three in Maryland, and eight in Virginia, and 11 union contracts. We developed a framework for evaluating each policy: permissiveness of data collection, data use/purpose, storage conditions, and sharing/access privileges. We found few policies directly related to occupational health and safety data privacy, and only two fire service-specific laws. Union protections varied, with many limiting data access, while others authorized electronic surveillance. The current legal structure provides some protection, but additional policymaking is needed to further safeguard firefighter data.
GrantCHaminsABrynerN, et al.Research roadmap for smart firefighting. US Department of Commerce, National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2015.
4.
McClureLAKoru-SengulTHernandezMN, et al.Availability and accuracy of occupation in cancer registry data among Florida firefighters. PLoS One2019; 14: e0215867. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0215867
5.
KahnSAMosierM. Firefighter injury data are wrought with discrepancy: pearls from the national burn repository. J Burn Care Res2018; 39: 623–625. doi:10.1093/jbcr/irx025
6.
WidmanSALeVasseurMTTabbLP, et al.The benefits of data linkage for firefighter injury surveillance. Inj Prev2018; 24: 19–28. doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2016-042213
7.
KritzlerMBäckmanMTenfältA, et al.Wearable technology as a solution for workplace safety. In: Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Mobile and Ubiquitous Multimedia2015; 213–217.
8.
HarrisASimsRRobertsA. BioErgo Surveillance: New Approaches for Total Worker Health. In: Association AIH. Synergist, 2020.
9.
FentKWSiegelMMayerA, et al.National Firefighter Registry Protocol. 2023.
JahnkeSAPostonWSJitnarinN, et al.Health concerns of the US fire service: perspectives from the firehouse. Am J Health Promot2012; 27: 111–118. doi:10.4278/ajhp.110311-QUAL-109
12.
AverillJDMoore-MerrellLNotarianniK, et al.Proceedings of the National Fire Service Data Summit. 2011.
13.
Moore-MerrellL. The Importance of Data to the Fire Service. Firehouse.2021.
14.
AmidonTRWilliamsEALipseyT, et al.Sensors and gizmos and data, oh my: informating firefighters’ personal protective equipment. Communication Design Quarterly Review2018; 5: 15–30. doi:10.1145/3188387.3188389
15.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Improve Tracking of Workplace Injuries and Illnesses Final Rule. In: Labor Do, (ed.). 2023.
16.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Improve Tracking of Workplace Injuries and Illnesses Proposed Rule. In: Labor Do, (ed.). 2022.
RoblingMHoodKHoustonH, et al.Public attitudes towards the use of primary care patient record data in medical research without consent: a qualitative study. J Med Ethics2004; 30: 104–109. doi:10.1136/jme.2003.005157
19.
KaufmanDJMurphy-BollingerJScottJ, et al.Public opinion about the importance of privacy in biobank research. The American Journal of Human Genetics2009; 85: 643–654. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2009.10.002
20.
EmanuelEJWendlerDGradyC. What makes clinical research ethical. JAMA2000; 283: 2701–2711. DOI: 10.1001/jama.283.20.2701
21.
GrayEAThorpeJH. Comparative effectiveness research and big data: balancing potential with legal and ethical considerations. J Comp Eff Res2015; 4: 61–74. doi:10.2217/cer.14.51
22.
RumseyALe DantecCA. Clearing the smoke: the changing identities and work in firefighters. In: Proceedings of the 2019 on designing interactive systems conference2019; pp. 581–592.
23.
TopazianRJWecAAliJ, et al.Ethical use of wearable device data in occupational settings: perspectives from the fire service. J Occup Environ Med2025: 10.1097.
24.
JacobsJVHettingerLJHuangY-H, et al.Employee acceptance of wearable technology in the workplace. Appl Ergon2019; 78: 148–156. doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2019.03.003
25.
SchallJMSesekRFCavuotoLA. Barriers to the adoption of wearable sensors in the workplace: a survey of occupational safety and health professionals. Hum Factors2018; 60: 351–362. doi:10.1177/0018720817753907
26.
Ifeoma AjunwaKCSchultzJ. Limitless worker surveillance. Calif Law Rev2018; 105: 735–776.
27.
LevyK. Data driven: Truckers, technology, and the new workplace surveillance. 2022.
28.
FahyRFEvartsBSteinGP. US fire department profile 2020. Quincy, MA, USA: National Fire Protection Association, 2022.
29.
International Association of Firefighters. Home - IAFF, https://www.iaff.org/ (2026, accessed 15 January 2026).
30.
ValentinoJ. Setting the framework for biometric privacy legislation after the “Big Bang” of biometrics in the workplace. Hofstra Lab & Emp LJ2020; 38: 167.
31.
SchumanA. Who's checking? A proposal to protect employee health screening data. Hofstra Lab & Emp LJ2021; 39: 177.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Rules of agency practice and procedure concerning OSHA access to employee medical records. 29 CFR Sect 191310. 2020.
39.
Maryland General Assembly. Title 14 Subtitle 35 Maryland Personal Information Protection Act. 2008.
40.
Virginia General Assembly. § 2.2-203.2:4 Chief Data Officer; position created. 2019.
41.
Memorandum of Understanding Fiscal Years 2022-2024 between the Mayor and City Council of Baltimore and Baltimore Fire Fighters Local 734, IAFF AFL-CIO, CLC. 2022.
42.
Memorandum of Understanding between the Baltimore County Administration and the Baltimore County Professional Firefighters Association IAFF Local 1311. 2022.
43.
Agreement Between Montgomery County Career Fire Fighters Association, International Association of Fire Fighters, Local 1664, AFL-CIO and Montgomery County Government/Montgomery County, Maryland For the Years July 1, 2022 Through June 30, 2024. 2022.
44.
Agreement Made by and between Prince George's County, Maryland, and International Association of Fire Fighters Local 1619 (Fire Fighters, Paramedics and Fire Fighter/Medics) July 1, 2022 Through June 30, 2024. 2022.
45.
Collective Bargaining Agreement Between Arlington Professional Firefighters and Paramedics Assoc., IAFF Local 2800 and Arlington County Government July 1, 2023 Through June 30, 2026. 2023.
46.
Collective Bargaining Agreement between the City of Alexandria, Virginia, and the International Association of Fire Fighters Local 2141 Effective From July 1, 2023-June 30, 2026. 2023.
47.
106th U.S. Congress. Fire Administration Authorization Act of 2000. 2000.
48.
91st U.S. Congress. Occupational Safety and Health Act 1970.
49.
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. Recordkeeping and Reporting Requirements Under Title VII, the ADA, GINA, and the PWFA. 2023.
50.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Access to employee exposure and medical records. 1980.
51.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Recording and Reporting Occupational Injuries and Illnesses. 2001.
52.
101st U.S. Congress. Americans with Disabilities Act. 1990.
53.
110th U.S. Congress. Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act. 2008.
54.
103rd U.S. Congress. Family and Medical Leave Act. 1993.
55.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration. State Plans. https://www.osha.gov/stateplans (2026, accessed 16 January 2026).
56.
Maryland General Assembly. Labor and Employment Title 3 - Employment Standards and Conditions Subtitle 7 - Miscellaneous Section 3-701 - Medical Questions. 2024.
57.
Virginia General Assembly. § 65.2-900 Records and reports of accidents. 1995.
58.
Virginia General Assembly. § 40.1-51.1 Duties of employers. 2016.
59.
Virginia General Assembly. § 65.2-402 Presumption as to death or disability from respiratory disease, hypertension or heart disease, cancer. 2023.
60.
Virginia General Assembly. 16VAC25-60-80 Access to employee medical and exposure records. 2006.
61.
Virginia General Assembly. § 8.01-413.1 Certain copies of employment records or papers admissible; right of employee or his attorney to copies of such records or papers; subpoena; damages, costs and attorney's fees. 1987.
62.
Virginia General Assembly. § 59.1–593 through 59.1-602 Genetic Data Privacy - Limitations. 2023.
63.
Memorandum of Agreement, Anne Arundel County and Local 1563 IAFF. 2022.
64.
Collective Bargaining Agreement Between the Town of Ocean City, Maryland and Career Fire Fighter Paramedics Association of Ocean City, IAFF Local 4269, International Association of Firefighters, Local 4269, AFL-CIO Effective July 1, 2019 - June 30, 2022 (later amended through 2024).
65.
Agreement Between the City of Hagerstown, Maryland and International Association of Fire Fighters, Local Number 1605 Effective July 1, 2018 - June 30, 2022. 2018.
66.
IAFF Local 1715 Collective Bargaining Agreement with the Mayor and City Council of Cumberland, MD July 1, 2017 through June 30, 2020. 2017.
67.
Memorandum of Understanding between the State of Maryland and the Baltimore/Washington International Airport Professional Fire Fighters Local 1742 IAFF, AFL-CIO, CLC January 1, 2022-December 31, 2024. 2022.
StudnickaA. The emergence of wearable technology and the legal implications for athletes, teams, leagues and other sports organizations across amateur and professional athletics. DePaul J Sports L2020; 16: i.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
