Children as young as ten are legally hired for farm work. In North Carolina, many of these hired children are Latinx; they often work long hours during hot and humid summer conditions. Heat-related illness occurs along a continuum of severity ranging from heat cramps and rashes to heat exhaustion and heat stroke, which can be fatal. The literature on the negative health effects of occupational heat exposure is growing; however, few studies have examined this exposure and health outcomes among child agricultural workers. To understand Latinx child farmworkers’ experiences of working in heat, we conducted in-depth interviews (n = 30). To estimate the prevalence of heat-related illness symptoms and associated factors, we conducted survey interviews (n = 165). Heat-related illness is common among these child farmworkers. While children often understand the dangers of working in heat, work organization often prevents their taking precautions. Formal workplace protections to prevent heat-related illness are limited.
GubernotDMAndersonGBHuntingKL.The epidemiology of occupational heat exposure in the United States: a review of the literature and assessment of research needs in a changing climate. Int J Biometeorol2014;
58: 1779–1788.
2.
LuberGMcGeehinM.Climate change and extreme heat events. Am J Prev Med2008;
35: 429–435.
3.
LundgrenKKuklaneKGaoC, et al.
Effects of heat stress on working populations when facing climate change. Ind Health2013;
51: 3–15.
4.
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. NIOSH criteria for a recommended standard: occupational exposure to heat and hot environments, https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2016-106/pdfs/2016-106.pdf (2016, accessed 17 September 2019).
5.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Heat-related deaths among crop workers: United States, 1992-2006. MMWR2008;
57: 649–653.
6.
ArcuryTAQuandtSA, et al. Community-based participatory research and occupational health disparities: pesticide exposure among immigrant farmworkers. In: LeongFEggerthDChangD (eds) Occupational health disparities among racial and ethnic minorities: formulating research needs and directions.
Washington, DC:
APA Press, 2014, pp. 89–111.
7.
ArcuryTAGabbardSBellB, et al.
Collecting comparative data on farmworker housing and health: recommendations for collecting housing and health data across places and time. New Solut2015;
25: 287–312.
8.
ArcuryTAJensenAMannM, et al.
Providing health information to Latino farmworkers: the case of the Affordable Care Act. J Agromedicine. 2017;
22: 275–281.
9.
ArcuryTASummersPTaltonJW, et al.
Heat illness among North Carolina Latino farmworkers. J Occup Environ Med2015;
57: 1299–1304.
10.
ArcuryTAWeirMMSummersP, et al.
Safety, security, hygiene and privacy in migrant farmworker housing. New Solut2012;
22: 153–173.
11.
GuildAFigueroaI.The neighbors who feed us: farmworkers and government policy – challenges and solutions. Harv Law Rev2018;
13: 157–186.
12.
LambarEFThomasG.The health and well-being of North Carolina’s farmworkers: the importance of inclusion, accessible services and personal connection. N C Med J2019;
80: 107–112.
13.
MuticADMixJMElonL, et al.
Classification of heat-related illness symptoms among Florida farmworkers. J Nurs Scholarsh2018;
50: 74–82.
14.
McLaurinJALiebmanAK.Unique agricultural safety and health issues of migrant and immigrant children. J Agromedicine2012;
17: 86–196.
15.
QuandtSAArnoldTJ.The health of children in the Latinx farmworker community in the Eastern United States. In: ArcuryTAQuandtSA (eds) Latinx farmworkers in the Eastern United States—health, safety, and justice. 2nd ed.
Cham, Switzerland:
Springer Nature Switzerland SG, 2020, pp. 163–195.
BethelJWHargerR.Heat-related illness among Oregon farmworkers. Int J Environ Res Public Health2014;
11: 9273–9285.
18.
FleischerNLTiesmanHMSumitaniJ, et al.
Public health impact of heat-related illness among migrant farmworkers. Am J Prev Med2013;
44: 199–206.
19.
KearneyGDHuHXuX, et al.
Estimating the prevalence of heat-related symptoms and sun safety-related behavior among Latino farmworkers in Eastern North Carolina. J Agromedicine2016;
21: 15–23.
20.
MirabelliMCQuandtSACrainR, et al.
Symptoms of heat illness among Latino farmworkers in North Carolina. Am J Prev Med2010;
39: 468–471.
21.
MoyceSMitchellDArmitageT, et al.
Heat strain, volume depletion and kidney function in California agricultural workers. Occup Environ Med2017;
74: 402–409.
22.
LuqueJSBeckerABossakBH, et al.
Knowledge and practices to avoid heat-related illness among Hispanic farmworkers along the Florida-Georgia line. J Agromedicine. 2020;
25: 190–200.
23.
BinazziALeviMBonafedeM, et al.
Evaluation of the impact of heat stress on the occurrence of occupational injuries: meta-analysis of observational studies. Am J Ind Med. 2019;
62: 233–243.
24.
SpectorJTMasudaYJWolffNH, et al.
Heat exposure and occupational injuries: review of the literature and implications. Curr Environ Health Rep. 2019;
6: 286–296.
25.
United States Department of Labor. Findings from the National Agricultural Workers Survey (NAWS) 2001–2002. A demographic and employment profile of United States farm workers. Research Report No. 9. Office of the Assistant Secretary for Policy and the Office of Programmatic Policy, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, DC, https://www.doleta.gov/agworker/report9/naws_rpt9.pdf (2005, accessed 19 March 2020).
26.
United States Department of Labor. National Agricultural Workers Survey (NAWS) Public data content and file formats. Employment and Training Administration, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, DC, https://www.doleta.gov/naws/public-data/ (2016, accessed 19 March 2020).
27.
QuandtSAKinzerHtTrejoG, et al. The health of women and women in farmworker families in the Eastern United States. In: ArcuryTAQuandtSA (eds) Latinx farmworkers in the Eastern United States—health, safety, and justice. 2nd ed.
Cham, Switzerland:
Springer Nature Switzerland SG, 2020, pp. 133–161.
28.
FlocksJVi Thien MacVRunkleJ, et al.
Female farmworkers’ perceptions of heat-related illness and pregnancy health. J Agromedicine2013;
18: 350–358.
29.
ArcuryTAQuandtSA.Health and social impacts of tobacco production. J Agromedicine. 2006;
11: 71–81.
30.
United States Department of Labor, Wage and Hour Division. Child labor bulletin 102: child labor requirements in agricultural occupations under the Fair Labor Standards Act, https://www.dol.gov/whd/regs/compliance/childlabor102.pdf (2016, accessed 12 November 2019).
31.
Government Accountability Office. Working children: federal injury data and compliance strategies could be strengthened, https://www.gao.gov/assets/700/695209.pdf (2018, accessed 12 November 2019).
American Academy of Pediatrics Council on Sports.
Policy statement—climatic heat stress and exercising children and adolescents. Pediatrics2011;
128: e741–e747.
34.
KerrZYCasaDJMarshallSW, et al.
Epidemiology of exertional heat illness among U.S. high school athletes. Am J Prev Med2013;
44: 8–14.
35.
KerrZYRegister-MhihalikJKPryorRR, et al.
The association between mandated preseason heat acclimatization guidelines and exertional heat illness during preseason high school American football practices. Environ Health Perspect2019;
127: 47003.
36.
MangusCWCanaresTL.Heat-related illness in children in an era of extreme temperatures. Pediatr Rev2019;
40: 97–107.
37.
QuandtSAArnoldTJMoraDC, et al.
Hired Latinx child farm labor in North Carolina: the demand-support-control model applied to a vulnerable worker population. Am J Ind Med2019;
62: 1079–1090. doi:10.1002/ajim.23039
38.
ArcuryTAArnoldTJMoraDC, et al.
Be careful! Perceptions of work-safety culture among hired Latinx child farmworkers in North Carolina. Am J Ind Med2019;
62: 1091–1102.
39.
Mac VVT and McCauleyLA.Farmworker vulnerability to heat hazards: a conceptual framework. J Nurs Scholarsh2017;
49: 617–624.
40.
North Carolina Climate Office. NC CRONOS weather and climate database version 2.7.2. NC State University, https://climate.ncsu.edu/cronos (2019, accessed 1 October 2019).
41.
ArcuryTAArnoldTJSandbergJC, et al.
Latinx child farmworkers in North Carolina: study design and participant baseline characteristics. Am J Ind Med2019;
62: 156–167.
42.
LuqueJSBossakBHDavilaCB, et al.
I think the temperature was 110 degrees! Work safety discussions among Hispanic farmworkers. J Agromedicine. 2019;
24: 15–25.
43.
MitchellDCCastroJArmitageTL, et al.
Physical activity and common tasks of California farm workers: California Heat Illness Prevention Study (CHIPS). J Occup Environ Hyg2018;
15: 857–869.
44.
Vega-ArroyoAJMitchellDCCastroJR, et al.
Impacts of weather, work rate, hydration, and clothing in heat-related illness in California farmworkers. Am J Ind Med2019;
62: 1038–1046.
45.
WadsworthGCourvilleMSchenkerM.Pay, power, and health: HRI and the agricultural conundrum. Labor Stud J2019;
44: 214–235.
46.
SpectorJTKrenzJBlankKN.Risk factors for heat-related illness in Washington crop workers. J Agromedicine. 2015;
20: 349–359.
47.
ArcuryTAKearneyGDRodriguezG.Work safety culture of youth farmworkers in North Carolina: a pilot study. Am J Public Health2015;
105: 344–350.
48.
KearneyGDRodriguezGQuandtSA, et al.
Work safety climate, safety behaviors, and occupational injuries of youth farmworkers in North Carolina. Am J Public Health2015;
105: 1336–1343.
49.
JohnsonRJWesselingCNewmanLS.Chronic kidney disease of unknown cause in agricultural communities. N Engl J Med2019;
380: 1843–1852.
50.
MixJElonLMacVVT, et al.
Hydration status, kidney function, and kidney injury in Florida agricultural workers. J Occup Environ Med2018;
60: E253–E260.
FalkB.Effects of thermal stress during rest and exercise in the paediatric population. Sports Med1998;
25: 221–240.
53.
ArnoldTJMalkiALeyvaJ, et al.
Engaging youth advocates in community-based participatory research on child farmworker health in North Carolina. Prog Community Health Partnersh2019;
13: 191–199.
54.
The CITI Program. Human research, Biomedical investigators, https://www.citiprogram.org (2019, accessed 4 December 2019).
55.
HarrisPATaylorRThielkeR, et al.
Research Electronic Data Capture (REDCap) – a metadata-driven methodology and workflow process for providing translational informatics support. J Biomed Inform2009;
42: 377–381.
United States Department of Labor, Wage and Hour Division. Fact sheet #51: field sanitation standards under the Occupational Safety and Health Act, https://www.dol.gov/whd/regs/compliance/whdfs51.pdf (2008, accessed 12 November 2019).
59.
MixJElonLMacVVT, et al.
Physical activity and work activities in Florida agricultural workers. Am J Ind Med2019;
62: 1058–1067.
60.
QuandtSAWigginsMFChenH, et al.
Heat index in migrant farmworker housing: implications for rest and recovery from work-related heat stress. Am J Public Health2013;
103: e24–e26.
61.
SummersPQuandtSATaltonJW, et al.
Hidden farmworker labor camps in North Carolina: an indicator of structural vulnerability. Am J Public Health2015;
105: 2570–2575.
62.
ArcuryTAQuandtSAPreisserJS.Predictors of incidence and prevalence of green tobacco sickness among Latino farmworkers in North Carolina, USA. J Epidemiol Community Health2001;
55: 818–824.
63.
California Department of Industrial Relations. California code of regulations, title 8: 3395 heat illness prevention, https://www.dir.ca.gov/Title8/3395.html (2015, accessed 18 September 2019).
CulpKTonelliSRameySL, et al.
Preventing heat-related illness among Hispanic farmworkers. Aaohn J2011;
59: 23–32.
68.
SpearsCDiazABaileyM, et al.
Empowering Latino youth farmworkers as youth health educators for occupational heat-related illness safety education in eastern North Carolina. Pract Anthropol. 2013;
35: 38–43.
Convention on the Rights of the Child, G.A. res. 44/25, annex, 44 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 49) at 167, U.N. Doc. A/44/49 (1989), entered into force Sept. 2 1990. University of Minnesota Human Rights Library, http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/instree/k2crc.htm (2018, accessed 4 March 2020).
