League of Legends is one of the most popular video games in the world. With the help of the new initiatives of the developers and publishers (Riot Games), professional international and local tournaments were established. Riot Games also took care of establishing regional leagues, such as LCK (League of Legends Champions Korea) or LEC (League of Legends European Championship). The best teams from each region have an annual chance to compete in October / November to become the esports world champions in LoL. Watching the tournaments such as world champions, as well as amateur streams on popular platforms (Twitch, YouTube) is now trending more and more. The fact that the game (especially spatial situations) can be observed by both experts (players of this game) and non-experts (players of other games or non-players at all) creates a field for scientific research.
Intervention
The authors of this article wanted to establish whether or not the League of Legends game offers gamers with different levels of knowledge of the entire game and different range of cognitive skills the same interpretation of spatial situations.
Methods
The research was carried out in the form of a questionnaire (offline), in which respondents were supposed to watch five short videos presenting different situations during the game. Eighty-two respondents, divided into three groups, participated in the research. The Pearson chi-square test was used for the analysis of the differences between groups.
Results and Discussion
As a consequence of the results of this study it may be concluded that gamers on different advancement level do not present the same level of interpretation of spatial situations in the game. The authors, using the scheme of knowledge of the point, lane, and area in the construction of video questionnaire did not focus on the game as a whole, but wanted to highlight crucial elements of the entire game.
AndrésA. M.TejedorI. H. (2009). Comments on ‘Tests for the homogeneity of two binomial proportions in extremely unbalanced 2 × 2 contingency tables’. Stat. Med, 28, 528–531.
2.
BarrM. (2017). Video games can develop graduate skills in higher education students: A randomised trial. Computers & Education, 113, 86–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2017.05.016
3.
BartholomewL. K.GoldR. S.ParcelG. S.CzyzewskiD. I.SockriderM. M.FernandezM., et al. (2000). Watch, discover, think, and act: evaluation of computer-assisted instruction to improve asthma self-management in inner-city children. Patient Education and Counseling, 39(2-3), 269–280. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0738-3991(99)00046-4
4.
BenjaminiY.HochbergY. (1995). Controlling the False Discovery Rate: A Practical and Powerful Approach to Multiple Testing. J. R. Stat. Soc. Ser. B, 57, 289–300. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2517-6161.1995.tb02031.x
BootW. R.KramerA. F.SimonsD. J.FabianiM.GrattonG. (2008). The effects of video game playing on attention, memory, and executive control. Acta Psychologica, 129(3), 387–398. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2008.09.005
CarrasC.KalbarczykM.WellsA.BanksK.KowertJ.GillespieR.LatkinC. (2018). Connection, meaning, and distraction: A qualitative study of video game play and mental health recovery in veterans treated for mental and/or behavioral health problems. Social Science & Medicine, 216, 124–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.08.044
CollerB. D.ScottM. J. (2009). Effectiveness of using a video game to teach a course in mechanical engineering. Computers & Education, 53(3), 900–912. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2009.05.012
11.
CoxM. K.KeyC. H. (1993). Post hoc pair-wise comparisons for the Chi-square test of homogeneity of proportions. Key Educ Psychol Meas, 53, 951–962. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164493053004008
12.
DelgrangeR.BurkhardtJ.-M.GyselinckV. (2020). Exploring human behavior with Grand Theft Auto V: A study of assisted cognition in wayfinding. International Journal of Virtual Reality, 20(1), 33–47. https://doi.org/10.20870/IJVR.2020.20.1.3249
DonaldsonS. (2017). Mechanics and Metagame: Exploring Binary Expertise in League of Legends. Games and Culture, 12(5), 426–444. https://doi.org/10.1177/1555412015590063
DrachenA.Seif El-NasrM.CanossaA. (2013). Game analytics – The basics. In Seif El-NasrM.DrachenA.CanossaA. (Eds.), Game Analytics (pp. 13–40). London, UK: Springer London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-4769-5
17.
EA Los Angeles. (2004). Medal of Honor: Pacific Assault.
18.
ElmoreK. L. (2005). Alternatives to the Chi-Square Test for Evaluating Rank Histograms from Ensemble Forecasts. Weather Forecast., 20, 789–795. https://doi.org/10.1175/WAF884.1
19.
FengJ.SpenceI.PrattJ. (2007). Playing an Action Video Game Reduces Gender Differences in Spatial Cognition. Psychological Science, 18(10):850–855. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01990.x
20.
FergusonC. J.GarzaA. (2011). Call of (civic) duty: action games and civic behavior in a large sample of youth. Computers in Human Behavior, 27(2), 770–775. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2010.10.026
21.
FergusonC. J.ColwellJ.MlacicB.MilasG.MiklousicI. (2011). Personality and media influences on violence and depression in a cross-national sample of young adults: data from Mexican-Americans, English and Croatians. Computers in Human Behavior, 27(3), 1195–1200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2010.12.015
22.
GardonyA. L.BrunyéT. T.TaylorH. A. (2015). Navigational Aids and Spatial Memory Impairment: The Role of Divided Attention. Spatial Cognition & Computation, 15(4), 246–284. https://doi.org/10.1080/13875868.2015.1059432
23.
GeeJ. P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York, USA: Palgrave.
24.
GolledgeR. G. (1992). Do people understand spatial concepts: The case of first-order primitives. In: FrankA.U.CampariI.FormentiniU. (Eds.) Theories and Methods of Spatio-Temporal Reasoning in Geographic Space. Lecture Notes in Computer Science (pp. 639). Springer, Berlin: Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-55966-3_1
HamlenK. R. (2012b). Academic dishonesty and video game play: Is new media use changing conceptions of cheating?Computers & Education, 59(4), 1145–1152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.06.001
28.
HorbińskiT.Medyńska-GulijB. (2017). Geovisualisation as a process of creating complementary visualisations: static two-dimensional, surface three-dimensional, and interactive. Geodesy and Cartography, 66, 45–58. https://doi.org/10.1515/geocart-2017-0009
HorbińskiT.ZagataK. (2022a). Interpretation of Map Symbols in the Context of Gamers’ Age and Experience. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information, 11(2), 150. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi11020150
31.
HorbińskiT.ZagataK. (2022b). View of Cartography in Video Games: Literature Review and Examples of Specific Solutions. KN J Cartogr Geogr Inf72, 117–128 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42489-022-00104-8
32.
JoeH.Maydeu-OlivaresA. (2010). A general family of limited information goodness-of-fit statistics for multinomial data. Psychometrika, 75, 393–419. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11336-010-9165-5
33.
KayeL. K.KowertR.QuinnS. (2017). The role of social identity and online social capital on psychosocial outcomes in MMO players. Computers in Human Behavior, 74, 215–223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.04.030
34.
KatoP. M.ColeS. W.BradlynA. S.PollockB. H. (2008). A video game improves behavioral outcomes in adolescents and young adults with cancer: a randomized trial. Pediatrics, 122(2), 305–317. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2007-3134
35.
KebritchiM.HirumiA.BaiH. (2010). The effects of modern mathematics computer games on mathematics achievement and class motivation. Computers & Education, 55(2), 427–443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2010.02.007
36.
KielyK. M. (2014). Cognitive Function. In: MichalosA.C. (eds) Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_426
37.
KimY. J.EngelD.WoolleyA. W.LinJ. Y.-TMcArthurN.MaloneT. W. (2017). What Makes a Strong Team? Using Collective Intelligence to Predict Team Performance in League of Legends. Proceedings of the 2017 ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work and Social Computing, 2316–2329. https://doi.org/10.1145/2998181.2998185
38.
LeeC.-S.RamlerI. (2017). Identifying and evaluating successful non-meta strategies in league of legends. Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on the Foundations of Digital Games, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1145/3102071.3102081
39.
LiG.DossH. (1993). Generalized pearson-fisher Chi-square goodness-of-fit tests, with applications to models with life history data. Ann Stat, 21, 772–797. https://doi.org/10.1214/aos/1176349151
40.
MatsuiA.SapienzaA.FerraraE. (2020). Does Streaming Esports Affect Players’ Behavior and Performance?Games and Culture, 15(1): 9–31. https://doi.org/10.1177/1555412019838095
41.
Medyńska-GulijB. (2014). Cartographic sign as a core of multimedia map prepared by non-cartographers in free map services. Geodesy and Cartography, 63, 55–64. https://doi.org/10.2478/geocart-2014-0004
42.
Medyńska-GulijB.WielebskiŁ.HalikŁ.SmaczyńskiM. (2020) Complexity Level of People Gathering Presentation on an Animated Map—Objective Effectiveness Versus Expert Opinion. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information, 9(2), 117. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi9020117
43.
MooreD. S.StubblebineaJ. B. (1981). Chi-square tests for multivariate normality with application to common stock prices. Commun Stat Theory Methods, 10, 713–738. https://doi.org/10.1080/03610928108828070
44.
MuehlenhausI. (2013). Web Cartography: Map Design for Interactive and Mobile Devices. CRC Press: London, UK. ISBN 978–1439876220.
45.
MuriasK.KwokK.CastillejoA.G.LiuI.IariaG. (2016). The effects of video game use on performance in a virtual navigation task. Computers in Human Behavior, 58(2), 398–406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.01.020
46.
NathanG. (1972). On the asymptotic power of tests for independence in contingency tables from stratified samples. J Am Stat Assoc, 67, 917–920. https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1972.10481318
47.
NieborgD. B. (2016). From premium to freemium: The political economy of the app. In LeaverT.WillsonM. A. (Eds.), Social, casual and mobile games: The changing gaming landscape (pp. 225–240). New York: Bloomsbury Academic.
48.
NouchiR.TakiY.TakeuchiH.HashizumeH.NozawaT., et al. (2013) Brain Training Game Boosts Executive Functions, Working Memory and Processing Speed in the Young Adults: A Randomized Controlled Trial. PLOS ONE, 8(2): e55518. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0055518
49.
O’BrienP. C.FlemingT. H. (1979). A multiple testing procedure for clinical trials. Biometrics, 35, 549–556. https://doi.org/10.2307/2530245
50.
PajitnovA. (1984). Tetris.
51.
PalermoL.IariaG.GuarigliaC. (2008). Mental imagery skills and topographical orientation in humans: a correlation study. Behavioural Brain Research, 192(2), 248–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2008.04.014
PardoL.MartínN. (2009). Omogeneity/heterogeneity hypotheses for standardized mortality ratios based on minimum power divergence estimators. Biom J, 51, 819–836. https://doi.org/10.1002/bimj.200800158
54.
ParkH.SeoG. (2019). A Study on Game Character Design Based on Mythical Motif: Focused on League of Legends. Journal of Digital Contents Society, 20(12), 2329–2340. https://doi.org/10.9728/dcs.2019.20.12.2329
55.
QuirogaM. A.HerranzM.Gómez-AbadM.KebirM.RuizJ.ColomR. (2009).Video-games: Do they require general intelligence?, Computers & Education, 53(2), 414–418. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2009.02.017
ReitmanJ. G.Anderson-CotoM. J.WuM.LeeJ. S.SteinkuehlerC. (2020). Esports Research: A Literature Review. Games and Culture, 15(1), 32–50. https://doi.org/10.1177/1555412019840892
58.
Riot Games. (2009). League of Legends.
59.
RosnerB. (2006). Fundamentals of Biostatistics. Chapter 10. Chi-Square Goodness of Fit, 6th ed.; Thomson Learning Academic Resource Center: Duxbury, MA, USA, pp. 438–441.
60.
SchmidtM. A. R.DelazariL. S. (2013). Gestalt aspects for differentiating the representation of landmarks in virtual navigation. Cartography and Geographic Information Science, 40(3): 159–164. https://doi.org/10.1080/15230406.2013.807031
61.
ScholzF. W.StephensM. A. (1987). K-sample anderson-darling tests. J Am Stat Assoc, 82, 918–924. https://doi.org/10.2307/2288805
62.
SchüllN. D. (2012). Addiction by design: Machine gambling in Las Vegas. Princeton, USA: Princeton University Press.
63.
SchuurmanP. (2021). A Game of Contexts: Prussian-German Professional Wargames and the Leadership Concept of Mission Tactics 1870–1880. War in History, 28(3), 504–524. https://doi.org/10.1177/0968344519855104
64.
ŞengünS.SantosJ. M.SalminenJ.JungS. G.JansenB. J. (2022). Do players communicate differently depending on the champion played? Exploring the Proteus effect in League of Legends. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 177, 121556. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2022.121556
65.
SherryJ. L.LucasK.GreenbergB.LachlanK. (2006). Video game uses and gratifications as predictors of use and game preference. In VordererP.BryantJ. (Eds.), Playing computer games: Motives, responses, and consequences. Mahwah, USA: Erlbaum.
66.
ShuteV. J.VenturaM.KeF. (2015). The power of play: The effects of Portal 2 and Lumosity on cognitive and noncognitive skills, Computers & Education, 80, 58–67, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.08.013
67.
SiC.PisanY.TanC. T.ShenS. (2017). An initial understanding of how game users explore virtual environments. Entertain Comput, 19, 13–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.entcom.2016.11.003
68.
SimsV. K.MayerR. E. (2002). Domain specificity of spatial expertise: the case of video game players. Appl Cognit Psychol, 16: 97–115. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.759
69.
SobczykB.DobrowolskiP.SkorkoM.MichalakJ.BrzezickaA. (2015). Issues and advances in research methods on video games and cognitive abilities. Front Psychol, 6, 1451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01451
70.
TerleckiM. S.NewcombeN. S.LittleM. (2008)., Durable and generalized effects of spatial experience on mental rotation: gender differences in growth patterns. Appl Cognit Psychol, 22: 996–1013. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.1420
71.
ToupsZ. O.LaLoneN.AlharthiS. A.SharmaN. H.WebbA. M. (2019). Making Maps Available for Play: Analyzing the Design of Game Cartography Interfaces. ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction, 26(5), 1–43. https://doi.org/10.1145/3336144
72.
TottenW.C. (2014). An Architectural Approach to Level Design. Boca Raton, USA: CRC Press.
73.
UttalD. H.MeadowN. G.TiptonE.HandL. L.AldenA. R.WarrenC.NewcombeN. S. (2013). The malleability of spatial skills: A meta-analysis of training studies. Psychological Bulletin, 139(2), 352–402. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028446
WuM.LeeJ. S.SteinkuehlerC. (2021). Understanding Tilt in Esports: A Study on Young League of Legends Players. In Proceedings of the 2021 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI '21). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, USA, Article 321, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1145/3411764.3445143
78.
WauckH.BaileyB. (2019). A testbed for fun and efective features in spatial skill training games. In CHI PLAY 2019 - Extended Abstracts of the Annual Symposium on Computer-Human Interaction in Play. Association for Computing Machinery, Inc, New York, New York, USA, 763–771. https://doi.org/10.1145/3341215.3356298
79.
WauckH.MeklerE.Wai-Tat FuW-T. (2019). A Player-Centric Approach to Designing Spatial Skill Training Games. In Proceedings of the 2019 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (Glasgow, Scotland Uk) (CHI ’19). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1145/3290605.3300296
80.
ZammittoV. L.The Expressions of Colours. Paper session presentation at the proceedings of the DiGRA 2005 – “Changing Views – Worlds in Play”, Vancouver, Canada, 2005.
81.
ZhangX.YueY.GuX.NiuB.FengY. Y. (2017). Investigating the Impact of Champion Features and Player Information on Champion Usage in League of Legends. Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Information Technology, 91–95. https://doi.org/10.1145/3176653.3176730
