Restricted accessResearch articleFirst published online 2025-10
Experimental study and characterization the thermomechanical coupling behavior of superelastic shape memory alloy bars subjected to rapid dynamic loads
Currently, quasi-static tests are employed to capture the stress-strain relationship of superelastic shape memory alloys (SMA) in the seismic design of structures. However, SMA components experience rapid dynamic loads during earthquakes, which may result in stress-strain relationships that differ significantly from those obtained through quasi-static analysis. To address this challenge, a study was conducted using techniques such as differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and cyclic uniaxial tensile tests with incremental amplitudes on a series of SMA bars subjected to various heat treatment procedures. The dynamics of phase transition were explored by analyzing the martensite fraction and temperature distribution of the specimens. It was found that the stress experienced by the SMA bars at higher loading rates exceeds that observed in quasi-static analyses. Moreover, the SMA bars may complete the martensite transition at lower strains than intended, potentially leading to premature fractures of SMA components in structures exposed to earthquakes.
AgboolaBOBaxevanisTLagoudasDC (2014) Thermodynamically consistent thermomechanical modeling of kinetics of macroscopic phase transition in SMA using phase field theory. In: ASME 2014 conference on smart materials, adaptive structures and intelligent systems.
2.
AlamMSYoussefMANehdiMMN, (2007) Utilizing shape memory alloys to enhance the performance and safety of civil infrastructure: A review. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering34(9): 1075–1086.
3.
AlsawalhiMYLandisCM (2022) A new phenomenological constitutive model for shape memory alloys. International Journal of Solids and Structures257: 111264.
4.
AndrawesBDesRochesR (2007) Effect of ambient temperature on the hinge opening in bridges with shape memory alloy seismic restrainers. Engineering Structures29(9): 2294–2301.
5.
AsfawAMCaoLOzbulutOE, et al. (2022) Development of a shape memory alloy-based friction damper and its experimental characterization considering rate and temperature effects. Engineering Structures273: 115101.
6.
AuricchioFSaccoE (2001) Thermo-mechanical modelling of a superelastic shape-memory wire under cyclic stretching–bending loadings. International Journal of Solids and Structures38(34-35): 6123–6145.
7.
BoydJGLagoudasDC (1996) A thermodynamical constitutive model for shape memory materials. Part II. The SMA composite material. International Journal of Plasticity12(7): 843–873.
8.
BoZLagoudasDC (1999) Thermomechanical modeling of polycrystalline SMAs under cyclic loading, Part I: Theoretical derivations. International Journal of Engineering Science37(9): 1089–1140.
9.
BrinsonLC (1993) One-dimensional constitutive behavior of shape memory alloys: Thermomechanical derivation with non-constant material functions and redefined martensite internal variable. Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures4: 229–242.
10.
BrinsonLCHuangMS (1996) Simplifications and comparisons of shape memory alloy constitutive models. Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures7(1): 108–114.
CaoSOzbulutOE (2020) Long-stroke shape memory alloy restrainers for seismic protection of bridges. Smart Materials and Structures29: 115005.
13.
CaoSOzbulutOE (2024) Experimental response characterization and comparative seismic performance assessment of a long-stroke shape memory alloy bridge restrainer. Engineering Structures315: 118450.
14.
CaoSOzbulutOEShiF, et al. (2022a) Experimental and numerical investigations on hysteretic response of a multi-level SMA/lead rubber bearing seismic isolation system. Smart Materials and Structures31(3): 035024.
15.
CaoSOzbulutOEShiF, et al. (2022b) An SMA cable-based negative stiffness seismic isolator: Development, experimental characterization, and numerical modeling. Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures33(14): 1819–1833.
16.
CaoSOzbulutOEWuS, et al. (2020) Multi-level SMA/lead rubber bearing isolation system for seismic protection of bridges. Smart Materials and Structures29: 055045.
17.
CaoSShiFCaoL, et al. (2024) A hybrid self-centering seismic damper: Finite element modeling and parametric analysis. Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures35(4): 440–457.
18.
CaoSYiJ (2021) Shape memory alloy-spring damper for seismic control and its application to bridge with laminated rubber bearings. Advances in Structural Engineering24(15): 3550–3563.
19.
ChoiENamTHOhJT, et al. (2006) An isolation bearing for highway bridges using shape memory alloys. Materials Science and Engineering A438(1): 1081–1084.
20.
DengJHuFOzbulutOE, et al. (2022) Verification of multi-level SMA/lead rubber bearing isolation system for seismic protection of bridges. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering161: 107380.
21.
DesRochesR (1999) Seismic Mitigation of Bridges Using Smart Restrainers. Newport Beach, CA: SPIE.
22.
DesRochesRPfeiferTLeonRT, et al. (2003) Full-scale tests of seismic cable restrainer retrofits for simply supported bridges. Journal of Bridge Engineering8(4): 191–198.
23.
DezfuliFHAlamMS (2016) Seismic vulnerability assessment of a steel-girder highway bridge equipped with different SMA wire-based smart elastomeric isolators. Smart Materials and Structures25(7): 075039.
24.
DezfuliFHLiSAlamMS, et al. (2017) Effect of constitutive models on the seismic response of an SMA-LRB isolated highway bridge. Engineering Structures148: 113–125.
25.
FangCCaoCZhengY, et al. (2023a) Self-centering energy-dissipative restrainers incorporating SMA ring springs. Journal of Structural Engineering149(5): 04023040.
26.
FangCLiangDZhengY, et al. (2022) Seismic performance of bridges with novel SMA cable-restrained high damping rubber bearings against near-fault ground motions. Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics51(1): 44–65.
27.
FangCQiuCWangW, et al. (2023b) Self-centering structures against earthquakes: A Critical Review. Journal of Earthquake Engineering27: 4354–4389.
28.
GuoAZhaoQLiH (2012) Experimental study of a highway bridge with shape memory alloy restrainers focusing on the mitigation of unseating and pounding. Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Vibration11(2): 195–204.
29.
HanQLiangXWenJ, et al. (2020) Multiple-variable frequency pendulum isolator with high-performance materials. Smart Materials and Structures29: 075002.
30.
JiangS-YZhaoY-NZhangY-Q, et al. (2013) Effect of solution treatment and aging on microstructural evolution and mechanical behavior of NiTi shape memory alloy. Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China23(12): 3658–3667.
31.
KangLQianHGuoY, et al. (2020) Investigation of mechanical properties of large shape memory alloy bars under different heat treatments. Materials13(17): 3729.
32.
KunduABanerjeeA (2022) Coupled thermomechanical modelling of shape memory alloy structures undergoing large deformation. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences220: 107102.
33.
LiangCRogersCA (1990) One-Dimensional thermomechanical constitutive relations for shape memory materials. Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures1(2): 207–234.
34.
LiangDZhengYFangC, et al. (2020) Shape memory alloy (SMA)-cable-controlled sliding bearings: Development, testing, and system behavior. Smart Materials and Structures29(8): 085006.
35.
LiH-NHuangZFuX, et al. (2018a) A re-centering deformation-amplified shape memory alloy damper for mitigating seismic response of building structures. Structural Control and Health Monitoring25(9): e2233.
36.
LiSHedayati DezfuliFWangJ-Q, et al. (2018b) Displacement-based seismic design of steel, FRP, and SMA cable restrainers for isolated simply supported bridges. Journal of Bridge Engineering23(6): 04018032.
37.
LiSHedayati DezfuliFWangJ-Q, et al. (2020) Seismic vulnerability and loss assessment of an isolated simply-supported highway bridge retrofitted with optimized superelastic shape memory alloy cable restrainers. Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering18(7): 3285–3316.
38.
LiSWangJAlamMS (2021) Seismic performance assessment of a multispan continuous isolated highway bridge with superelastic shape memory alloy reinforced piers and restraining devices. Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics50(2): 673–691.
MirzaeifarRDesRochesRYavariA (2011) Analysis of the rate-dependent coupled thermo-mechanical response of shape memory alloy bars and wires in tension. Continuum Mechanics and Thermodynamics23(4): 363–385.
41.
MorinCMoumniZZakiW (2011) Thermomechanical coupling in shape memory alloys under cyclic loadings: Experimental analysis and constitutive modeling. International Journal of Plasticity27(12): 1959–1980.
42.
NaeemAEldinMNKimJ, et al. (2017) Seismic performance evaluation of a structure retrofitted using steel slit dampers with shape memory alloy bars. International Journal of Steel Structures17(4): 1627–1638.
43.
OzbulutOEHurlebausS (2011) Optimal design of superelastic-friction base isolators for seismic protection of highway bridges against near-field earthquakes. Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics40(3): 273–291.
44.
OzbulutOEHurlebausSDesrochesR (2011) Seismic response control using shape memory alloys: A review. Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures22(14): 1531–1549.
45.
PangYSunYZhongJ (2021) Resilience-based performance and design of SMA/sliding bearing isolation system for highway bridges. Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering19(14): 6187–6211.
46.
PengZWeiWYiboL, et al. (2021) Cyclic behavior of an adaptive seismic isolation system combining a double friction pendulum bearing and shape memory alloy cables. Smart Materials and Structures30(7): 075003.
47.
PeyrouxRChrysochoosALichtC, et al. (1998) Thermomechanical couplings and pseudoelasticity of shape memory alloys. International Journal of Engineering Science36: 489–509.
48.
QianHLiHSongG, et al. (2013) Recentering shape memory alloy passive damper for structural vibration control. Mathematical Problems in Engineering2013: 1–13.
49.
QiuCWangHLiuJ, et al. (2020) Experimental tests and finite element simulations of a new SMA-steel damper. Smart Materials and Structures29(3): 035016.
50.
RohJ-H (2014) Thermomechanical modeling of shape memory alloys with rate dependency on the pseudoelastic behavior. Mathematical Problems in Engineering2014(1): 204165.
51.
ShresthaBHaoHBiK (2014) Effectiveness of using rubber bumper and restrainer on mitigating pounding and unseating damage of bridge structures subjected to spatially varying ground motions. Engineering Structures79: 195–210.
52.
ShresthaBHeLXHaoH, et al. (2018) Experimental study on relative displacement responses of bridge frames subjected to spatially varying ground motion and its mitigation using superelastic SMA restrainers. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering109: 76–88.
53.
SoldatosDTriantafyllouSPPanoskaltsisVP (2017) Thermomechanical couplings in shape memory alloy materials. Continuum Mechanics and Thermodynamics29(3): 805–834.
54.
TanakaK (1986) A thermomechanical sketch of shape memory effect: One-dimensional tensile behavior. JRM18: 251–263.
55.
WangBZhuSCasciatiF (2020) Experimental study of novel self-centering seismic base isolators incorporating superelastic shape memory alloys. Journal of Structural Engineering146(7): 04020129.
56.
WangJ-QLiSHedayati DezfuliF, et al. (2019a) Sensitivity analysis and multi-criteria optimization of SMA cable restrainers for longitudinal seismic protection of isolated simply supported highway bridges. Engineering Structures189: 509–522.
57.
WangWFangCLiuJ (2016) Large size superelastic SMA bars: Heat treatment strategy, mechanical property and seismic application. Smart Materials and Structures25(7): 075001.
58.
WangWFangCZhangA, et al. (2019b) Manufacturing and performance of a novel self-centring damper with shape memory alloy ring springs for seismic resilience. Structural Control and Health Monitoring26(5): e2337.
59.
XiaoYZengPLeiL (2018) Micromechanical modeling on thermomechanical coupling of cyclically deformed superelastic NiTi shape memory alloy. International Journal of Plasticity107: 164–188.
60.
ZhangYZhuS (2007) A shape memory alloy-based reusable hysteretic damper for seismic hazard mitigation. Smart Materials and Structures16(5): 1603–1613.
61.
ZhengWTanPLiJ, et al. (2023) Superelastic pendulum isolator with multi-stage variable curvature for seismic resilience enhancement of cold-regional bridges. Engineering Structures284: 115960.
62.
ZhengWTanPZhangZ, et al. (2022) Damping enhanced novel re-centering seismic isolator incorporating superelastic SMA for response control of bridges under near-fault earthquakes. Smart Materials and Structures31(6): 065015.
63.
ZhengWWangHLiJ, et al. (2019) Performance evaluation of bridges isolated with SMA-based friction pendulum system at low temperatures. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering125: 105734.
64.
ZhengYDongYLiY (2018) Resilience and life-cycle performance of smart bridges with shape memory alloy (SMA)-cable-based bearings. Construction and Building Materials158: 389–400.
65.
ZhuangPZhaoWZhangG, et al. (2024) Shaking table tests on seismic behaviors of a single-layer spherical lattice shell with shape memory alloy-controlled friction pendulum bearings. Journal of Building Engineering82: 108150.
66.
ZhuSZhangY (2007) A thermomechanical constitutive model for superelastic SMA wire with strain-rate dependence. Smart Materials and Structures16(5): 1696–1707.
