Individuals with mental illness are disproportionately represented in the criminal legal system due to the criminalization of mental illness; however, one highly prevalent diagnosis among this population is posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Experiences of incarceration in jail among individuals with PTSD are understudied, which is alarming as persons in jails have the highest rates of PTSD within the criminal legal system. Utilizing a phenomenological approach, this study aims to explore, describe, and understand the lived experiences of persons previously incarcerated in jails with PTSD. Findings from this study provide a firsthand account of the inhumane and traumatizing jail experiences persons with PTSD encounter and identify areas of the criminal legal system requiring intervention.
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.).
2.
BabchukL.LurgioA.CanadaK.EppersonM. (2012). Responding to probationers with mental illness. Federal Probation Journal, 76(2).
3.
BaranyiG.CassidyM.FazelS.PriebeS.MundtA. P. (2018). Prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder in prisoners. Epidemiologic Reviews, 40(1), 134–145. https://doi.org/10.1093/epirev/mxx015
4.
BarnertE.AhaltC.WilliamsB. (2020). Prisons: Amplifiers of the COVID-19 pandemic hiding in plain sight. American Journal of Public Health, 110(7), 964–966. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2020.305713
5.
BarrettA.TaylorS.KopakA.HoffmanN. (2020). PTSD, panic disorder and alcohol use disorder as a triple threat for violence among male jail detainees. Journal of Criminal Psychology, 1(1), 21–29. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCP-07-2020-0029
6.
BeckerH. S. (1963). Outsiders: Studies in the sociology of deviance. Free Press Glencoe.
BouwN.HuijbregtsS. C. J.ScholteE.SwaabH. (2019). Mindfulness-based stress reduction in prison: Experiences of inmates, instructors, and prison staff. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 63(15–16), 2550–2571. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X19856232
10.
BriereJ. (1996). Psychometric review of the Trauma Symptom Checklist-40. In StammB. H. (Ed.), Measurement of stress, trauma, and adaptation. Sidran Press.
11.
CombsE.GustonK.KopakA.RaggioA.HoffmanN. (2019). Posttraumatic stress, panic disorder, violence, and recidivism among local jail detainees. International Journal of Prisoner Health, 15(4), 366–375. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJPH-06-2018-0036
12.
CreswellJ. W.PothC. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (4th ed.). Sage Publications.
13.
DeVeauxM. (2013). The trauma of the incarceration experience. Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review, 48(1), 257–278.
FlattJ. D.WilliamsB. A.BarnesD.GoldensonJ.AhaltC. (2017). Post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms and associated health and social vulnerabilities in older jail inmates. Aging & Mental Health, 21(10), 1106–1112.
17.
GiarratanoP.FordJ. D.NochajskiT. H. (2017). Gender differences in complex posttraumatic stress symptoms, and their relationship to mental health and substance abuse outcomes in incarcerated adults. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 35(5–6), 1133–1157. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517692995
18.
GoseinV. J.StifflerJ. D.FrascoiaA.FordE. B. (2016). Life stressors and posttraumatic stress disorder in a seriously mentally ill jail population. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 61(1), 116–121. https://doi.org/10.1111/1556-4029.12874
19.
GroenewaldT. (2004). A phenomenological research design illustrated. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 3(1), 42–55. https://doi.org/10.1177/160940690400300104
20.
HarnerH.BurgessA. W. (2011). Using a trauma-informed framework to care for incarcerated women. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic, & Neonatal Nursing, 40(4), 469–476. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1552-6909.2011.01259.x
21.
HarnerH. M.RileyS. (2013). The impact of incarceration on women’s mental health: Responses from women in a maximum-security prison. Qualitative Health Research, 23(1), 26–42. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732312461452
22.
HayesL. M. (2012). National study of jail suicide: 20 years later. Journal of Correctional Health Care, 18(3), 233–245. https://doi.org/10.1177/1078345812445457
23.
HutchisonJ. (2019). “It’s sexual assault. It’s barbaric”: Strip searching in women’s prisons as state-inflicted sexual assault. Affilia: Journal of Women and Social Work, 35(2), 160–176. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886109919878274
24.
HycnerR. (1985). Some guidelines for the phenomenological analysis of interview data. Human Studies, 8, 279–303. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00142995
25.
JewkesY.JoranM.WrightS.BendelowG. (2019). Designing ‘healthy’ prisons for women: Incorporating trauma-informed care and practice (TICP) into prison planning and design. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(20), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16203818.
26.
KelmanJ.GribbleR.HarveyJ.PalmerL.MacManusD. (2024). How does a history of trauma affect the experience of imprisonment for individuals in women’s prisons: A qualitative exploration. Women & Criminal Justice, 34(3), 171–191.
27.
KennedyS.MennickeA. (2017). ”Behind every women in prison is a man”: Incarcerated women’s perceptions of how we can better help them in the context of interpersonal victimization. Journal of Progressive Human Services, 29(3), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/10428232.2017.1399034
28.
KubiakS. (2004). The effects of PTSD on treatment adherence, drug relapse, and criminal recidivism in a sample of incarcerated men and women. Research on Social Work Practice, 14, 424–433. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731504265837
29.
KubiakS.CovingtonS.HillerC. (2017). Trauma-informed corrections. In SpringerD.RobertsA. (Eds), Social Work in Juvenile and Criminal Justice System, 4th ed. Springfield, IL; Charles C. Thomas.
30.
LevensonJ.WillisG. (2018). Implementing trauma-informed care in correctional treatment and supervision. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment, & Trauma, 28(4), 481–501. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2018.1531959
31.
ListwanS.ColvinM.HanleyD.FlanneryD. (2010). Victimization, social support, and psychological well-being: A study of recently released prisoners. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 37(10), 1140–1159. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854810376338
32.
LynchS. M.FritchA.HeathN. M. (2012). Looking beneath the surface: The nature of incarcerated women’s experiences of interpersonal violence, treatment needs, and mental health. Feminist Criminology, 7(4), 381–400. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557085112439224
33.
MackenzieJ.CartwrightT.BorrillJ. (2017). Exploring suicidal behaviors by probation clients—a qualitative near-lethal study. Journal of Public Health, 40(1), 146–153. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdx005
34.
MaschiT.ViolaD.KoskinenL. (2015). Trauma, stress, and coping among older adults in prison: Towards a human rights and intergenerational family justice action agenda. Traumatology, 21(3), 188–200. https://doi.org/10.1037/trm0000021
35.
MillerN. A.NajavitsL. M. (2012). Creating trauma-informed correctional care: A balance of goals and environment. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 3(1), 17246. https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v3i0.17246
36.
MitchellS. M.La RosaN. L.CaryJ.SparksS. (2021). Considering the impact of COVID-19 on suicide risk among individuals in prison and during reentry. Journal of Criminal Psychology, 11(3), 240–253.
37.
NellerD. J.DenneyR. L.PietzC. A.ThomlinsonR. P. (2005). Testing the trauma model of violence. Journal of Family Violence, 20, 151–159. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-005-3651-z
38.
NeubauerB.WitkopC.VarpioL. (2019). How phenomenology can help us learn from the experiences of others. Perspect.med, 8(2), 90–97. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40037-019-0509-2
39.
PadgettD. K. (2017). Qualitative methods in social work research (3rd ed.). Sage.
40.
PattersonM.UchigakiuchiP.BissenT. (2013). Can prison be a place of healing? The trauma-informed care initiative at the women’s community correctional center. Hülili: Multidisciplinary Research on Hawaiian Well-Being, 9, 305-338.
41.
PiperA.BerleD. (2019). The association between trauma experienced during incarceration and PTSD outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, 30(5), 854–875. https://doi.org/10.1080/14789949.2019.1639788
42.
ProctorS.HoffmanN.RaggioA. (2019). Prevalence of substance use disorders and psychiatric conditions among county jail inmates: Changes and stability over time. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 46(1), 24–41. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854818796062
43.
RichardsJ.BealW.SeagalJ.PennebakerJ. (2000). Effects of disclosure of traumatic events on illness behavior among psychiatric prison inmates. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109(1), 156-160. https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-843X.109.1.156
44.
RobinsonL. K.Heyman-KantorR.AngelottaC. (2020). Strategies mitigating the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on incarcerated populations. American Journal of Public Health, 110(8), 1135. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2020.305754
45.
RootM. P. P. (1992). Reconstructing the impact of trauma on personality. In BrownL. S.BallouM. (Eds.), Personality and psychopathology: Feminist reappraisals (pp. 229–265). The Guilford Press.
46.
RuzichD.ReichertJ.LurigioA. J. (2014). Probable posttraumatic stress disorder in a sample of urban jail detainees. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 37(5), 455–463. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlp.2014.02.018
47.
SadehN.McnielD. (2014). Posttraumatic stress disorder increased risk of criminal recidivism among justice-involved persons with mental disorders. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 42(6), 573–586. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854814556880
48.
SaxonA. J.DavisT. M.SloanK. L.McKnightK. M.McFallM. E.KivlahanD. R. (2001). Trauma, symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder, and associated problems among incarcerated veterans. Psychiatric Services, 52(7), 959–964. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.52.7.959
VaswaniN.PaulS. (2019). “It’s knowing the right things to say and do”: Challenges and opportunities for trauma-informed practice in the prison context. The Howard Journal of Crime and Justice, 58(4), 513–534. https://doi.org/10.1111/hojo.12344
51.
VeyseyB. M. (2010). Mental Health Issues of Incarcerated Women. In LevinB. L.BeckerM. A. (Eds.), A public health perspective of women’s mental health (pp. 245–260). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1526-9_13
WidomC. S.MaxfieldM. G. (2001). An update on the “cycle of violence” (Research in Brief, pp. 1–8). U.S. Department of Justice.
54.
WilliamsJ. M.SpencerZ.WilsonS. K. (2021). I am not your felon: Decoding the trauma, resilience, and recovering mothering of formerly incarcerated black women. Crime & Delinquency, 67(8), 1103–1136. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128720974316
55.
WolfeJ.KimerlingR.BrownP.ChrestmanK.LevinK. (1997). The Life Stressor Checklist-Revised (LSC-R) [Measurement instrument]. http://www.ptsd.va.gov
56.
WolffN.HueningJ.ShiJ.FruehB. C. (2014). Trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder among incarcerated men. Journal of Urban Health: Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 91(4), 707–719. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-014-9871-x
