This work examines the optical density, temperature rise, and velocity conditions
adjacent to smoke detectors at the time of alarm to provide guidance on estimating
smoke detector response. Variables that affect the values of these measurements at
the time of alarm are also discussed. Significant variations in the optical density,
temperature rise, and velocity magnitude at the time of alarm are observed. Plots of
the cumulative percentages of detector alarms are presented for optical density,
temperature rise, and velocity at alarm values. These plots facilitate the
consideration of uncertainty in smoke detector response estimates by allowing a
range of alarm thresholds to be determined.
Heskestad, G.
, “Escape Potentials from Apartments Protected by Fire
Detectors in Highrise Buildings,” FMRCSerial No. 21017,
Factory Mutual Research Corp., Norwood, MA
, June 1974.
2.
Heskestad, G.
, “Generalized Characterization of Smoke Entry and Response for
Products-of-Combustion Detectors,” In: Proceedings, Fire Detection for
Life Safety, March 31–April 1, 1975,
National Research Council, 1975
, pp. 93–127.
3.
Bukowski, R.W.
,
Waterman, T.E.
and
Christian, W.J.
, “Detector Sensitivity and Siting Requirements for
Dwellings,” Final Technical Report, NBS-GCR-75-51,
National Bureau of Standards, Gaithersburg, MD
, 1975.
4.
Heskestad, G.
and
Delichatsios, M.A.
, “Environments of Fire Detectors – Phase I: Effect
of Fire Size, Ceiling Height, and Material,” Volume I:
“Measurements,” NBS-GCR-77-86, 1977, Volume II:
“Analysis,” NBS-GCR-77-95,
National Bureau of Standards, Gaithersburg, MD
, 1977.
5.
Schifiliti, R.P.
,
Meacham, B.J.
and
Custer, R.L.P.
, “Design of Detection Systems,” In:
DiNenno, P.J.
, ed., SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, Chapter
4–1, Third Edition,
National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA
, 2002.
6.
NFPA 72
, National Fire Alarm Code, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy,
MA, 2002.
7.
Geiman, J.A.
, “Evaluation of Smoke Detector Response Estimation
Methods,” Master of Science Thesis, University of Maryland, College
Park, MD, December 2003.
8.
UL 217
, “Standard for Single and Multiple Station Smoke Alarms,”Fifth Edition Dated February 21, 1997 with Revisions through October 12,
2001,
Underwriters Laboratories Inc., Northbrook, IL
, 2001.
9.
UL 268
, “Standard for Smoke Detectors for Fire Protective
Signaling Systems,”Fourth Edition dated December 30, 1996 with Revisions through October 22,
2003,
Underwriters Laboratories Inc., Northbrook, IL
, 2003.
10.
Schifiliti, R.P.
,
Meacham, B.J.
and
Custer, R.L.P.
, “Design of Detection Systems,” In:
DiNenno, P.J.
, ed., SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, Chapter
4–1, Second Edition,
National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA
, 1995.
11.
Geiman, J.A.
and
Gottuk, D.T.
,
“Alarm Thresholds for Smoke Detector Modeling,” In
:
Evans, D.D.
, ed., Fire Safety Science – Proceedings of the 7th
International Symposium, June 16–21,
2002, Worcester, MA, International Association for Fire Safety
Science, Boston, MA, 2003, pp.
197–208
.
12.
Beyler, C.
and
DiNenno, P.
,
“Letters to the Editor”
,Fire Technology, vol 27, No. 2, May
1991, pp.
160–169
.
13.
Schifiliti, R.P.
and
Pucci, W.E.
, “Fire Detection Modeling: State of the Art”,
Fire Detection Institute, Bloomfield, CT
, 1996.
14.
Luck, H.
and
Sievert, U.
, “Does an Over-all Modeling Make Any Sense in Automatic
Fire Detection?,” In: AUBE “99 Proceedings of
the 11th International Conference on Automatic Fire Detection,
Gerhard Mercator Universitat Duisburg
, 1999, pp. 1–21.
15.
Cholin, J.M.
and
Marrion, C.
, “Performance Metrics for Fire Detection,”
Fire Protection Engineering
, No. 11, Summer 2001, pp. 21–30.
16.
Evans, D.
and
Stroup, D.
, “Methods to Calculate the Response Time of Heat and Smoke
Detectors Installed Below Large Unobstructed Ceilings,
” National Bureau of Standards, Gaithersburg, NBSIR85–3167, 1985.
17.
Bukowski, R.W.
and
Averill, J.D.
,
“Methods for Predicting Detector Activation,”
In: Proceedings of 14th Joint Panel Meeting of the UJNR Panel on
Fire Research and Safety, Tsukuba, Japan, 1998, US/Japan
Government Cooperative Program on Natural Resources (UJNR), Fire Research and
Safety, 1998, pp.
213–221
.
18.
Collier, P.C.R.
,
“Fire in a Residential Building: Comparisons Between Experimental
Data and a Fire Zone Model”
,Fire Technology, Vol. 32, No. 3,
1996, pp.
195–219
.
19.
Davis, W.D.
and
Notarianni, K.A.
, “NASA Fire Detector Study”,
National Institute of Standards and Technology, NISTIR 5798
, 1996.
20.
Mowrer, F.W.
and
Friedman, J.
,
“Experimental Investigation of Heat and Smoke Detector Response
,” In: Proceedings of the Fire Suppression and Detection
Research Application Symposium, Orlando, FL,
February 24–26, 1998, pp.
256–264
.
21.
Gottuk, D.T.
,
Hill, S.A.
,
Schemel, C.F.
,
Strehlen, B.D.
,
Rose-Phersson, S.L.
,
Shaffer, R.E.
,
Tatem, P.A.
and
Williams, F.W.
, “Identification of Fire Signatures for Shipboard
Multicriteria Fire Detection Systems,
” Naval Research Laboratory, Memorandum Report
, 6180-99-8386, 1999.
22.
Wakelin, A.J., “An Investigation of Correlations for Multi-signal
Fire Detectors,” Master of Science Thesis, Worcester Polytechnic
Institute, Worcester, MA, February 1997.
23.
Cleary, T.
,
Chernovsky, A.
,
Grosshandler, W.
and
Anderson, M.
,
“Particulate Entry Lag in Spot-Type Smoke Detectors,”
In:
Curtat, M.
, ed., Fire Safety Science – Proceedings of the 6th
International Symposium, July 5–9, 1999,
Poitiers, France, International Association for Fire Safety Science,
Boston, MA, 2000, pp.
779–790
.
24.
Brozovski, E., “A Preliminary Approach to Siting Smoke Detectors
Based on Design Fire Size and Detector Aerosol Entry Lag Time, Master of Science
Thesis, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA, 1991.
25.
Gottuk, D.T.
,
Harrison, M.A.
,
Rose-Pehrsson, S.L.
,
Owrutsky, J.C.
,
Williams, F.W.
and
Farley, J.P.
, “Shipboard Evaluation of Fire Detection Technologies for
Volume Sensor Development,
” Naval Research Laboratory, Memorandum Report
, 6180-0282, 2003.
26.
Harrison, M.A.
,
Gottuk, D.T.
,
Rose-Pehrsson, S.L.
,
Owrutsky, J.C.
,
Williams, F.W.
and
Farley, J.P.
, “Video Image Detection (VID) Systems and Fire Detection
Technologies: Preliminary Results from the Magazine Detection System Response
Tests,” Naval Research Laboratory, Memorandum
Report, 6180-0262, 2003.
27.
Su, J.Z.
,
Crampton, G.P.
,
Carpenter, D.W.
,
McCartney, C.
and
Leroux, P.
, “Kemano Fire Studies – Part 1: Response of
Residential Smoke Alarms,” Research Report 108, National
Research Council of Canada, Ottawa,
Canada
, April 2003.
28.
CAN/ULC-S531-M87
, “Standard for Smoke Alarms,” Underwriter's
Laboratories of Canada,
Toronto, ON, Canada
, 1995 Edition, pp. 1–86.
