Merely Folklore? The Role of a Growth Mindset in the Taking and Timing of Entrepreneurial Actions

Abstract

Why do some potential entrepreneurs promptly engage in entrepreneurial behavior while others do not pursue their entrepreneurial intentions or delay acting? This study investigated whether potential entrepreneurs’ mindset shapes engaging in entrepreneurial behavior and the time until they do so. Over a 16-month period, holding more of a growth (vs. fixed) mindset positively predicted taking various entrepreneurial actions and doing so sooner. Interestingly, these effects vanished when individuals faced a less challenging context for entrepreneurship. Post-hoc exploratory analyses revealed that the COVID-19 pandemic magnified the impact of mindsets on entrepreneurial behavior. These findings pave the way for preliminary research on the viability of growth mindset interventions for fostering entrepreneurial behavior.

Keywords

growth mindset entrepreneurial behavior context time until entrepreneurial action event history analysis

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Ács

Z. J.

Szerb

(2009). The global entrepreneurship index (GEINDEX). Foundations and Trends in Entrepreneurship, 5(5), 341–435.

Adaman

Kaya

(2012). Social impact of emigration and Rural-Urban migration in Central and Eastern Europe.

Aldrich

H. E.

Kim

P. H.

(2007). A life course perspective on occupational inheritance: Self-employed parents and their children. In Ruef

Lounsbury

(Eds), Research in the Sociology of Organizations (pp. 33–82). JAI Press Elsevier, Oxford.

Allen

J. S.

Stevenson

R. M.

O’Boyle

E. H.

Seibert

(2021). What matters more for entrepreneurship success? A meta-analysis comparing general mental ability and emotional intelligence in entrepreneurial settings. Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal, 15(3), 352–376.

Antoncic

Bratkovic Kregar

Singh

Denoble

A. F.

(2015). The big five personality–entrepreneurship relationship: Evidence from Slovenia. Journal of Small Business Management, 53(3), 819–841.

Armitage

C. J.

Conner

(2001). Efficacy of the theory of planned behaviour: A meta-analytic review. British Journal of Social Psychology, 40(Pt 4), 471–499.

Audretsch

D. B.

Grilo

Thurik

A. R.

(2007). Explaining entrepreneurship and the role of policy: A framework. Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd.

Bai

Kao

(2021). Returnee entrepreneurs and the performance implications of political and business relationships under institutional uncertainty. Journal of Business Research, 128, 245–256.

Bandura

(1986). The explanatory and predictive scope of self-efficacy theory. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 4(3), 359–373.

10.

Baron

R. A.

Markman

G. D.

(2000). Beyond social capital: How social skills can enhance entrepreneurs’ success. Academy of Management Perspectives, 14(1), 106–116.

11.

Bennett

V. M.

Chatterji

A. K.

(2019). The entrepreneurial process: Evidence from a nationally representative survey. Strategic Management Journal. 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.3077

12.

Bergman

B. J.

McMullen

J. S.

(2022). Helping entrepreneurs help themselves: A review and relational research agenda on entrepreneurial support organizations. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 46(3), 688–728.

13.

Billingsley

Lipsey

N. P.

Burnette

J. L.

Pollack

J. M.

(2021). Growth mindsets: Defining, assessing, and exploring effects on motivation for entrepreneurs and non-entrepreneurs. Current Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02149-w

14.

Bird

B. J.

(1992). The operation of intentions in time: The emergence of the new venture. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 17(1), 11–20.

15.

Bloemen-Bekx

Voordeckers

Remery

Schippers

(2019). Following in parental footsteps? The influence of gender and learning experiences on entrepreneurial intentions. International Small Business Journal, 37(6), 642–663.

16.

Blossfeld

H.-P.

Rohwer

Schneider

(2019). Event history analysis with Stata. Routledge.

17.

Boudreaux

C. J.

Nikolaev

(2019). Capital is not enough: Opportunity entrepreneurship and formal institutions. Small Business Economics, 53(3), 709–738.

18.

Boyd

N. G.

Vozikis

G. S.

(1994). The influence of self-efficacy on the development of entrepreneurial intentions and actions. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 18(4), 63–77.

19.

Brandstätter

(2011). Personality aspects of entrepreneurship: A look at five meta-analyses. Personality and Individual Differences, 51(3), 222–230.

20.

Brown

J. D.

Earle

J. S.

(2017). Finance and growth at the firm level: Evidence from SBA loans. The Journal of Finance, 72(3), 1039–1080.

21.

Burgoyne

A. P.

Hambrick

D. Z.

Macnamara

B. N.

(2020). How firm are the foundations of mind-set theory? The claims appear stronger than the evidence. Psychological Science, 31(3), 258–267.

22.

Burnette

J. L.

(2010). Implicit theories of body weight: Entity beliefs can weigh you down. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36(3), 410–422.

23.

Burnette

J. L.

Hoyt

C. L.

Dweck

C. S.

Auster-Gussman

(2017). Weight beliefs and messages: Mindsets predict body-shame and anti-fat attitudes via attributions. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 47(11), 616–624.

24.

Burnette

J. L.

Knouse

L. E.

Vavra

D. T.

O’Boyle

Brooks

M. A.

(2020). Growth mindsets and psychological distress: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 77, 101816.

25.

Burnette

J. L.

O’Boyle

E. H.

VanEpps

E. M.

Pollack

J. M.

Finkel

E. J.

(2013). Mind-sets matter: AA meta-analytic review of implicit theories and self-regulation.undefined. Psychological Bulletin, 139(3), 655–701.

26.

Burnette

J. L.

Pollack

J. M.

Forsyth

R. B.

Hoyt

C. L.

Babij

A. D.

Thomas

F. N.

Coy

A. E.

(2020). A growth mindset intervention: Enhancing students’ entrepreneurial self-efficacy and career development. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 44(5), 878–908.

27.

Busenitz

L. W.

Gomez

Spencer

J. W.

(2000). Country institutional profiles: Unlocking entrepreneurial phenomena. Academy of Management Journal, 43(5), 994–1003.

28.

Camuffo

Cordova

Gambardella

Spina

(2020). A scientific approach to entrepreneurial decision making: Evidence from a randomized control trial. Management Science, 66(2), 564–586.

29.

Canning

E. A.

Murphy

M. C.

Emerson

K. T. U.

Chatman

J. A.

Dweck

C. S.

Kray

L. J.

(2020). Cultures of genius at work: Organizational mindsets predict cultural norms, trust, and commitment. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 46(4), 626–642.

30.

Caputo

Pellegrini

M. M.

(2020). The entrepreneurial behaviour: Unveiling the cognitive and emotional aspect of entrepreneurship. Emerald Publishing Limited.

31.

Carr

J. C.

Sequeira

J. M.

(2007). Prior family business exposure as intergenerational influence and entrepreneurial intent: A theory of planned behavior approach. Journal of Business Research, 60(10), 1090–1098.

32.

Carter

N. M.

Gartner

W. B.

Reynolds

P. D.

(1996). Exploring start-up event sequences. Journal of Business Venturing, 11(3), 151–166.

33.

Cassar

(2010). Are individuals entering self-employment overly-optimistic? An empirical test of plans and projections on nascent entrepreneur expectations. Strategic Management Journal, 31(8), 822–840.

34.

Chen

C. C.

Greene

P. G.

Crick

(1998). Does entrepreneurial self-efficacy distinguish entrepreneurs from managers? Journal of Business Venturing, 13(4), 295–316.

35.

Chiu

C.-Y.

Dweck

C. S.

Tong

J. Y.-Y.

J. H.-Y.

(1997). Implicit theories and conceptions of morality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(5), 923–940.

36.

Chlosta

Patzelt

Klein

S. B.

Dormann

(2012). Parental role models and the decision to become self-employed: The moderating effect of personality. Small Business Economics, 38(1), 121–138.

37.

Choi

Y. R.

Lévesque

Shepherd

D. A.

(2008). When should entrepreneurs expedite or delay opportunity exploitation? Journal of Business Venturing, 23(3), 333–355.

38.

Costa PT

P. T.

Jr McCrae

R. R.

Löckenhoff

C. E.

(2019). Personality across the life span. Annual Review of Psychology, 70, 423–448.

39.

Criaco

Sieger

Wennberg

Chirico

Minola

(2017). Parents’ performance in entrepreneurship as a “double-edged sword” for the intergenerational transmission of entrepreneurship. Small Business Economics, 49(4), 841–864.

40.

Curtin

R. T.

Reynolds

P. D.

(2018). Panel Study of Entrepreneurial Dynamics, PSED II, United States, 2005-2011 Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research [distributor]. https://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR37202.v1

41.

Cury

Da Fonseca

Zahn

Elliot

(2008). Implicit theories and IQ test performance: A sequential mediational analysis. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44(3), 783–791.

42.

Dai

Liu

(2009). Returnee entrepreneurs and firm performance in Chinese high-technology industries. International Business Review, 18(4), 373–386.

43.

Daspit

J. J.

Fox

C. J.

Findley

S. K.

(2021). Entrepreneurial mindset: An integrated definition, a review of current insights, and directions for future research. Journal of Small Business Management, 59(6), 1–33.

44.

Davidsson

Gruenhagen

J. H.

(2021). Fulfilling the process promise: A review and agenda for new venture creation process research. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 45(5), 1083–1118.

45.

Davidsson

Honig

(2003). The role of social and human capital among nascent entrepreneurs. Journal of Business Venturing, 18(3), 301–331.

46.

Davis

M. H.

Hall

J. A.

Mayer

P. S.

(2016). Developing a new measure of entrepreneurial mindset: Reliability, validity, and implications for practitioners. Consulting Psychology Journal Practice and Research, 68(1), 21–48.

47.

Díez-Martín

Blanco-González

Miotto

(2022). The impact of state legitimacy on entrepreneurial activity. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 18(2), 935–955.

48.

Doron

Stephan

Boiché

Le Scanff

(2009). Coping with examinations: Exploring relationships between students’ coping strategies, implicit theories of ability, and perceived control. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 79(Pt 3), 515–528.

49.

Durand

D. E.

(1975). Effects of achievement motivation and skill training on the entrepreneurial behavior of black businessmen. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 14(1), 76–90.

50.

Durand

D. E.

(1983). Modified achievement-motivation training: A longitudinal study of effects of a condensed training design for entrepreneurs. Psychological Reports, 52(3), 907–911.

51.

Kim

P. H.

(2021). One size does not fit all: Strategy configurations, complex environments, and new venture performance in emerging economies. Journal of Business Research, 124, 272–285.

52.

Dweck

C. S.

(1986). Motivational processes affecting learning. American Psychologist, 41(10), 1040–1048.

53.

Dweck

C. S.

(1999). Self-theories: Their role in motivation, personality, and development. Psychology Press.

54.

Dweck

C. S.

(2006). Mindset. Robinson.

55.

Dweck

C. S.

Chiu

C. Y.

Hong

Y. Y.

(1995). Implicit theories and their role in judgments and reactions: A word from two perspectives. Psychological Inquiry, 6(4), 267–285.

56.

Dweck

C. S.

Yeager

D. S.

(2019). Mindsets: A view from two eras. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 14(3), 481–496.

57.

Dyer

W. G.

Handler

(1994). Entrepreneurship and family business: Exploring the connections. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 19(1), 71–83.

58.

Edelman

L. F.

Manolova

Shirokova

Tsukanova

(2016). The impact of family support on young entrepreneurs’ start-up activities. Journal of Business Venturing, 31(4), 428–448.

59.

Eesley

Wang

(2017). Social influence in career choice: Evidence from a randomized field experiment on entrepreneurial mentorship. Research Policy, 46(3), 636–650.

60.

Ertac

Tanova

(2020). Flourishing women through sustainable tourism entrepreneurship. Sustainability, 12(14), 5643.

61.

Estrin

Korosteleva

Mickiewicz

(2013). Which institutions encourage entrepreneurial growth aspirations? Journal of Business Venturing, 28(4), 564–580.

62.

Fairlie

R. W.

Holleran

(2012). Entrepreneurship training, risk aversion and other personality traits: Evidence from a random experiment. Journal of Economic Psychology, 33(2), 366–378.

63.

Filatotchev

Liu

Wright

(2011). Knowledge spillovers through human mobility across national borders: Evidence from Zhongguancun Science Park in China. Research Policy, 40(3), 453–462.

64.

Fisher

(2012). Effectuation, causation, and bricolage: A behavioral comparison of emerging theories in entrepreneurship research. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 36(5), 1019–1051.

65.

Fisher

Stevenson

Neubert

Burnell

Kuratko

D. F.

(2020). Entrepreneurial hustle: Navigating uncertainty and enrolling venture stakeholders through urgent and unorthodox action. Journal of Management Studies, 57(5), 1002–1036.

66.

Frederick

O’Connor

Kuratko

D. F.

(2018). Entrepreneurship:Theory/Process/Practice. Cengage AU.

67.

Fredström

Peltonen

Wincent

(2021). A country-level institutional perspective on entrepreneurship productivity: The effects of informal economy and regulation. Journal of Business Venturing, 36(5), 106002.

68.

Frese

Gielnik

M. M.

(2014). The Psychology of Entrepreneurship. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 1(1), 413–438.

69.

Gao

(2021). Mass Entrepreneurship and mass innovation in China (p. 254). The Oxford Handbook of China Innovation.

70.

Gartner

W. B.

(1985). A conceptual framework for describing the phenomenon of new venture creation. Academy of Management Review, 10(4), 696–706.

71.

Gatewood

E. J.

Shaver

K. G.

Gartner

W. B.

(1995). A longitudinal study of cognitive factors influencing start-up behaviors and success at venture creation. Journal of Business Venturing, 10(5), 371–391.

72.

Gervey

B. M.

Chiu

C. Y.

Hong

Y.-Y.

Dweck

C. S.

(1999). Differential use of person information in decisions about guilt versus innocence: The role of implicit theories. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25(1), 17–27.

73.

Gibson

D. E.

(2004). Role models in career development: New directions for theory and research. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 65(1), 134–156.

74.

Gielnik

M. M.

M. A.

Funken

Bischoff

K. M.

(2017). Boosting and sustaining passion: A long-term perspective on the effects of entrepreneurship training. Journal of Business Venturing, 32(3), 334–353.

75.

Giones

Brem

Pollack

J. M.

Michaelis

T. L.

Klyver

Brinckmann

(2020). Revising entrepreneurial action in response to exogenous shocks: Considering the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Business Venturing Insights, 14, e00186.

76.

Goodell

J. W.

(2020). COVID-19 and finance: Agendas for future research. Finance Research Letters, 35, 101512.

77.

Gruenhagen

J. H.

(2021). Returnee entrepreneurship: How home-country institutions, estrangement and support influence entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Entrepreneurship in Emerging Economies, 13(5), 945–966.

78.

Haselhuhn

M. P.

Schweitzer

M. E.

Wood

A. M.

(2010). How implicit beliefs influence trust recovery. Psychological Science, 21(5), 645–648.

79.

Hearn

(2019). Understanding the Growth Mindset. Retrieved 11 January 2022 from https://www.entrepreneur.com/article/340762

80.

Hechavarria

D. M.

Renko

Matthews

C. H.

(2012). The nascent entrepreneurship hub: Goals, entrepreneurial self-efficacy and start-up outcomes. Small Business Economics, 39(3), 685–701.

81.

Heslin

P. A.

(2003). Self- and other-referent criteria of career success. Journal of Career Assessment, 11(3), 262–286.

82.

Heslin

P. A.

Burnette

J. L.

Ryu

N. G.

(2021). Does a growth mindset enable successful aging? Work Aging and Retirement, 7(2), 79–89.

83.

Heslin

P. A.

Keating

L. A.

(2016). Stuck in the muck? The role of mindsets in self-regulation when stymied during the job search. Journal of Employment Counseling, 53(4), 146–161.

84.

Heslin

P. A.

Keating

L. A.

Ashford

S. J.

(2020). How being in learning mode may enable a sustainable career across the lifespan. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 117, 103324.

85.

Heslin

P. A.

Keating

L. A.

Minbashian

(2019). How situational cues and mindset dynamics shape personality effects on career outcomes. Journal of Management, 45(5), 2101–2131.

86.

Heslin

P. A.

Latham

G. P.

VandeWalle

(2005). The effect of implicit person theory on performance appraisals. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(5), 842–856.

87.

Heslin

P. A.

VandeWalle

(2011). Performance appraisal procedural justice: The role of a manager’s implicit person theory. Journal of Management, 37(6), 1694–1718.

88.

Hitt

M. A.

Bierman

Uhlenbruck

Shimizu

(2006). The importance of resources in the internationalization of professional service firms: The good, the bad, and the ugly. Academy of Management Journal, 49(6), 1137–1157.

89.

Hoeppner

B. B.

Kelly

J. F.

Urbanoski

K. A.

Slaymaker

(2011). Comparative utility of a single-item versus multiple-item measure of self-efficacy in predicting relapse among young adults. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 41(3), 305–312.

90.

Hoffmann

Junge

Malchow-Møller

(2015). Running in the family: Parental role models in entrepreneurship. Small Business Economics, 44(1), 79–104.

91.

Hong

Y. Y.

Chiu

C. Y.

Dweck

C. S.

Lin

D. M. S.

Wan

(1999). Implicit theories, attributions, and coping: A meaning system approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(3), 588–599.

92.

Hottenrott

Richstein

(2020). Start-up subsidies: Does the policy instrument matter? Research Policy, 49(1), 103888.

93.

Howell

A. J.

Buro

(2009). Implicit beliefs, achievement goals, and procrastination: A mediational analysis. Learning and Individual Differences, 19(1), 151–154.

94.

Hoyt

C. L.

Burnette

J. L.

(2020). Growth mindset messaging in stigma-relevant contexts: Harnessing benefits without costs. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 7(2), 157–164.

95.

Hoyt

C. L.

Burnette

J. L.

Innella

A. N.

(2012). I can do that: The impact of implicit theories on leadership role model effectiveness. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38(2), 257–268.

96.

Japutra

Song

(2020). Mindsets, shopping motivations and compulsive buying: Insights from China. Journal of Consumer Behaviour, 19(5), 423–437.

97.

Johnsen

C. G.

Holt

(2021). Narrating the facets of time in entrepreneurial action. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice. https://doi.org/10.1177/10422587211038107

98.

Johns

(2006). The essential impact of context on organizational behavior. Academy of Management Review, 31(2), 386–408.

99.

Kautonen

Luoto

Tornikoski

E. T.

(2010). Influence of work history on entrepreneurial intentions in ‘prime age’ and ‘third age’: A preliminary study. International Small Business Journal, 28(6), 583–601.

100.

Keating

L. A.

Heslin

P. A.

(2015). The potential role of mindsets in unleashing employee engagement. Human Resource Management Review, 25(4), 329–341.

101.

Kessler

Frank

(2009). Nascent entrepreneurship in a longitudinal perspective:The impact of person, environment, resources and the founding process on the decision to start business activities. International Small Business Journal, 27(6), 720–742.

102.

Kickul

Gundry

L. K.

Barbosa

S. D.

Whitcanack

(2009). Intuition versus analysis? Testing differential models of cognitive style on entrepreneurial self–efficacy and the new venture creation process. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 33(2), 439–453.

103.

Kirschner

P. A.

Hendrick

(2020). How learning happens: Seminal works in educational psychology and what they mean in practice. Routledge.

104.

Klyver

Honig

Steffens

(2018). Social support timing and persistence in nascent entrepreneurship: exploring when instrumental and emotional support is most effective. Small Business Economics, 51(3), 709–734.

105.

Kray

L. J.

Haselhuhn

M. P.

(2007). Implicit negotiation beliefs and performance: Experimental and longitudinal evidence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93(1), 49–64.

106.

Kruglanski

A. W.

Webster

D. M.

(2018). Motivated closing of the mind: "Seizing" and "freezing.". Psychological Review, 103, 263–283.

107.

Kuckertz

Brändle

Gaudig

Hinderer

Morales Reyes

C. A.

Prochotta

Steinbrink

K. M.

Berger

E. S. C.

(2020). Startups in times of crisis – A rapid response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Business Venturing Insights, 13, e00169.

108.

Kuratko

D. F.

Fisher

Audretsch

D. B.

(2021). Unraveling the entrepreneurial mindset. Small Business Economics, 57(4), 1681–1691.

109.

Kuwabara

Zou

Aven

Hildebrand

Iyengar

(2020). Lay theories of networking ability: Beliefs that inhibit instrumental networking. Social Networks, 62, 1–11.

110.

Laspita

Breugst

Heblich

Patzelt

(2012). Intergenerational transmission of entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Business Venturing, 27(4), 414–435.

111.

Lévesque

Minniti

(2006). The effect of aging on entrepreneurial behavior. Journal of Business Venturing, 21(2), 177–194.

112.

Lévesque

Stephan

(2020). It’s time we talk about time in entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 44(2), 163–184.

113.

Ozdemir

S. Z.

(2020). Membership vs. Embeddedness: How involvement in professional associations while overseas influences returnees’ entrepreneurial intentions, Australian Center for Entrepreneurship Research Exchange Conference, Adelaide, Australia

114.

Lim

D. S. K.

C. H.

De Clercq

(2016). Engagement in entrepreneurship in emerging economies: Interactive effects of individual-level factors and institutional conditions. International Business Review, 25(4), 933–945.

115.

Lin

Liu

Zhang

(2016). International knowledge brokerage and returnees’ entrepreneurial decisions. Journal of International Business Studies, 47(3), 295–318.

116.

Lindquist

M. J.

Sol

Van Praag

(2015). Why do entrepreneurial parents have entrepreneurial children? Journal of Labor Economics, 33(2), 269–296.

117.

Liu

C. Y.

Feng

(2019). Migrant entrepreneurship in China: entrepreneurial transition and firm performance. Small Business Economics, 52(3), 681–696.

118.

Bates

T. C.

(2019). You can’t change your basic ability, but you work at things, and that’s how we get hard things done: Testing the role of growth mindset on response to setbacks, educational attainment, and cognitive ability. Journal of Experimental Psychology General, 148(9), 1640–1655.

119.

Bates

T. C.

(2020). Testing the association of growth mindset and grades across a challenging transition: Is growth mindset associated with grades? Intelligence, 81, 101471.

120.

Lombardi

Tiscini

Trequattrini

Martiniello

(2021). Strategic entrepreneurship: Personal values and characteristics influencing smes’ decision-making and outcomes. The gemar Balloons case. Management Decision, 59, 1069–1084.

121.

Mangels

J. A.

Butterfield

Lamb

Good

Dweck

C. S.

(2006). Why do beliefs about intelligence influence learning success? A social cognitive neuroscience model. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 1(2), 75–86.

122.

Manso

(2016). Experimentation and the returns to entrepreneurship. Review of Financial Studies, 29(9), 2319–2340.

123.

Mathur

Jain

S. P.

Maheswaran

(2012). Consumers’ implicit theories about personality influence their brand personality judgments. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 22(4), 545–557.

124.

Mayer

S. D.

Harima

Freiling

(2015). Network benefits for Ghanaian diaspora and returnee entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurial Business and Economics Review, 3(3), 95–121.

125.

McAdam

Cunningham

J. A.

(2019). Entrepreneurial behaviour: Individual, contextual and microfoundational perspectives. Springer.

126.

McMullen

J. S.

Shepherd

D. A.

(2006). Entrepreneurial action and the role of uncertainty in the theory of the entrepreneur. Academy of Management Review, 31(1), 132–152.

127.

Meoli

Fini

Sobrero

Wiklund

(2020). How entrepreneurial intentions influence entrepreneurial career choices: The moderating influence of social context. Journal of Business Venturing, 35(3), 105982.

128.

Mofield

Parker Peters

(2019). Understanding underachievement: Mindset, perfectionism, and achievement attitudes among gifted students. Journal for the education of the gifted, 42(2), 107–134.

129.

Mrazek

A. J.

Ihm

E. D.

Molden

D. C.

Mrazek

M. D.

Zedelius

C. M.

Schooler

J. W.

(2018). Expanding minds: Growth mindsets of self-regulation and the influences on effort and perseverance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 79, 164–180.

130.

Mullen

M. R.

(1995). Diagnosing measurement equivalence in cross-national research. Journal of International Business Studies, 26(3), 573–596.

131.

Mungai

Velamuri

S. R.

(2011). Parental entrepreneurial role model influence on male offspring: Is it always positive and when does it occur? Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 35(2), 337–357.

132.

Murphy

M. C.

Reeves

S. L.

(2019). Personal and organizational mindsets at work. Research in Organizational Behavior, 39, 100121.

133.

Nanda

Sørensen

J. B.

(2010). Workplace peers and entrepreneurship. Management Science, 56(7), 1116–1126.

134.

Neck

H. M.

Neck

C. P.

Murray

E. L.

(2019). Entrepreneurship: The practice and mindset. SAGE Publications.

135.

Neneh

B. N.

(2019). From entrepreneurial alertness to entrepreneurial behavior: The role of trait competitiveness and proactive personality. Personality and Individual Differences, 138, 273–279.

136.

Jenkins

A. S.

(2018). Motivated but not starting: How fear of failure impacts entrepreneurial intentions. Small Enterprise Research, 25(2), 152–167.

137.

Nikolaev

B. N.

Maldonado-Bautista

(2019). Personality traits and income attainment of self-employed people—Accounting for model uncertainty. Journal of Business Venturing Insights, 11, e00111.

138.

Ommundsen

Haugen

Lund

(2005). Academic self-concept, implicit theories of ability, and self-regulation strategies. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 49(5), 461–474.

139.

Orvidas

Burnette

J. L.

Russell

V. M.

(2018). Mindsets applied to fitness: Growth beliefs predict exercise efficacy, value and frequency. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 36, 156–161.

140.

Ott

T. E.

Eisenhardt

K. M.

(2020). Decision weaving: Forming novel, complex strategy in entrepreneurial settings. Strategic Management Journal, 41(12), 2275–2314.

141.

Ozdemir

S. Z.

Moran

Zhong

Bliemel

M. J.

(2016). Reaching and acquiring valuable resources: The entrepreneur’s use of brokerage, cohesion, and embeddedness. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 40(1), 49–79.

142.

Özduran

Tanova

(2017). Manager mindsets and employee organizational citizenship behaviours. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 29(1), 589–606.

143.

Paunesku

Walton

G. M.

Romero

Smith

E. N.

Yeager

D. S.

Dweck

C. S.

(2015). Mind-set interventions are a scalable treatment for academic underachievement. Psychological Science, 26(6), 784–793.

144.

Pidduck

R. J.

Clark

D. R.

Lumpkin

G. T.

(2021). Entrepreneurial mindset: Dispositional beliefs, opportunity beliefs, and entrepreneurial behavior. Journal of Small Business Management. 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1080/00472778.2021.1907582

145.

Politis

(2005). The process of entrepreneurial learning: A conceptual framework. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 29(4), 399–424.

146.

Pollack

J. M.

Burnette

J. L.

Hoyt

C. L.

(2012). Self-efficacy in the face of threats to entrepreneurial success: Mind-sets matter. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 34(3), 287–294.

147.

Pruthi

(2014). Social ties and venture creation by returnee entrepreneurs. International Business Review, 23(6), 1139–1152.

148.

Qin

Wright

Gao

(2017). Are ‘sea turtles’ slower? Returnee entrepreneurs, venture resources and speed of entrepreneurial entry. Journal of Business Venturing, 32(6), 694–706.

149.

Rahim

M. A.

(2014). A structural equations model of leaders’ social intelligence and creative performance. Creativity and Innovation Management, 23(1), 44–56.

150.

Rammstedt

John

O. P.

(2007). Measuring personality in one minute or less: A 10-item short version of the Big Five Inventory in English and German. Journal of Research in Personality, 41(1), 203–212.

151.

Rattan

Dweck

C. S.

(2018). What happens after prejudice is confronted in the workplace? How mindsets affect minorities’ and women’s outlook on future social relations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 103(6), 676–687.

152.

Rattan

Ozgumus

(2019). Embedding mindsets in context: Theoretical considerations and opportunities for studying fixed-growth lay theories in the workplace. Research in Organizational Behavior, 39, 100127.

153.

Rauch

Frese

(2007). Let’s put the person back into entrepreneurship research: A meta-analysis on the relationship between business owners’ personality traits, business creation, and success. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 16(4), 353–385.

154.

Reynolds

P. D.

(2016). Start-up actions and outcomes: What entrepreneurs do to reach profitability. Foundations: Trends in Entrepreneurship, 12(6), 443–559.

155.

Reynolds

P. D.

Carter

N. M.

Gartner

W. B.

Greene

P. G.

(2004). The prevalence of nascent entrepreneurs in the United States: Evidence from the panel study of entrepreneurial dynamics. Small Business Economics, 23(4), 263–284.

156.

Reynolds

P. D.

Miller

(1992). New firm gestation: Conception, birth, and implications for research. Journal of Business Venturing, 7(5), 405–417.

157.

Rickert

N. P.

Meras

I. L.

Witkow

M. R.

(2014). Theories of intelligence and students’ daily self-handicapping behaviors. Learning and Individual Differences, 36, 1–8.

158.

Roach

Sauermann

(2015). Founder or joiner? The role of preferences and context in shaping different entrepreneurial interests. Management Science, 61(9), 2160–2184.

159.

Robins

R. W.

Pals

J. L.

(2002). Implicit self-theories in the academic domain: Implications for goal orientation, attributions, affect, and self-esteem change. Self and Identity, 1(4), 313–336.

160.

Rocha

Van Praag

(2020). Mind the gap: The role of gender in entrepreneurial career choice and social influence by founders. Strategic Management Journal, 41(5), 841–866.

161.

Samuel

T. S.

Warner

(2021). “I can Math!”: reducing math anxiety and increasing math self-efficacy using a mindfulness and growth mindset-based intervention in first-year students. Community College Journal of Research & Practice, 45(3), 205–222.

162.

Satchell

Hoskins

Corr

Moore

(2017). Ruminating on the nature of intelligence: Personality predicts implicit theories and educational persistence. Personality and Individual Differences, 113, 109–114.

163.

Schmutzler

Andonova

Diaz-Serrano

(2019). How context shapes entrepreneurial self-efficacy as a driver of entrepreneurial intentions: A multilevel approach. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 43(5), 880–920.

164.

Sharkey

A. J.

(2014). Categories and organizational status: The role of industry status in the response to organizational deviance. American Journal of Sociology, 119(5), 1380–1433.

165.

Shepherd

D. A.

Patzelt

Haynie

J. M.

(2010). Entrepreneurial spirals: Deviation–amplifying loops of an entrepreneurial mindset and organizational culture. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 34(1), 59–82.

166.

Shih

S.-S.

(2011). Perfectionism, implicit theories of intelligence, and Taiwanese eighth-grade students’ academic engagement. Educational Research Journal, 104(2), 131–142.

167.

Shinnar

R. S.

Hsu

D. K.

Powell

B. C.

Zhou

(2018). Entrepreneurial intentions and start-ups: Are women or men more likely to enact their intentions? International Small Business Journal, 36(1), 60–80.

168.

Shirokova

Osiyevskyy

Bogatyreva

(2016). Exploring the intention–behavior link in student entrepreneurship: Moderating effects of individual and environmental characteristics. European Management Journal, 34(4), 386–399.

169.

Short

J. C.

Ketchen

D. J.

Shook

C. L.

Ireland

R. D.

(2010). The concept of “opportunity” in entrepreneurship research: Past accomplishments and future challenges. Journal of Management, 36(1), 40–65.

170.

Sisk

V. F.

Burgoyne

A. P.

Sun

Butler

J. L.

Macnamara

B. N.

(2018). To what extent and under which circumstances are growth mind-sets important to academic achievement? two meta-analyses. Psychological Science, 29(4), 549–571.

171.

Smith

B. P.

(2005). Goal orientation, implicit theory of ability, and collegiate instrumental music practice. Psychology of Music, 33(1), 36–57.

172.

Spinath

F. M.

Riemann

Angleitner

(2003). Implicit theories about personality and intelligence and their relationship to actual personality and intelligence. Personality and Individual Differences, 35(4), 939–951.

173.

Steier

Greenwood

(2000). Entrepreneurship and the evolution of angel financial networks. Organization Studies, 21(1), 163–192.

174.

Stevenson

Josefy

McMullen

J. S.

Shepherd

(2020). Organizational and management theorizing using experiment-based entrepreneurship research: Covered terrain and new frontiers. The Academy of Management Annals, 14(2), 759–796.

175.

Tamir

John

O. P.

Srivastava

Gross

J. J.

(2007). Implicit theories of emotion: Affective and social outcomes across a major life transition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(4), 731–744.

176.

Thurik

A. R.

Carree

M. A.

van Stel

Audretsch

D. B.

(2008). Does self-employment reduce unemployment? Journal of Business Venturing, 23(6), 673–686.

177.

Tran

Truong

A. T. T.

(2022). Knowledge recontextualization by returnee entrepreneurs: The dynamic learning perspective. Journal of International Management, 28(3), 100922.

178.

Van Gelderen

Kautonen

Fink

(2015). From entrepreneurial intentions to actions: Self-control and action-related doubt, fear, and aversion. Journal of Business Venturing, 30(5), 655–673.

179.

Van Lent

Hunt

Lerner

(2020). Back to which future? Recalibrating the time-calibrated narratives of entrepreneurial action to account for non-deliberative dynamics. Academy of Management Review. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2020.0358

180.

Vladasel

Lindquist

M. J.

Sol

van Praag

(2021). On the origins of entrepreneurship: Evidence from sibling correlations. Journal of Business Venturing, 36(5), 106017.

181.

Wang

D. J.

(2020). When do return migrants become entrepreneurs? The role of global social networks and institutional distance. Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal, 14(2), 125–148.

182.

Welter

(2011). Contextualizing entrepreneurship—conceptual challenges and ways forward. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 35(1), 165–184.

183.

Wiklund

Davidsson

Audretsch

D. B.

Karlsson

(2011). The future of entrepreneurship research. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 35(1), 1–9.

184.

Wiklund

Patzelt

(2018). Impulsivity and entrepreneurial action. The Academy of Management Perspectives, 32(3), 379–403.

185.

Wood

Bandura

(1989). Impact of conceptions of ability on self-regulatory mechanisms and complex decision making. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(3), 407–415.

186.

Yeager

D. S.

Bundick

M. J.

Johnson

(2012). The role of future work goal motives in adolescent identity development: A longitudinal mixed-methods investigation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 37(3), 206–217.

187.

Yeager

D. S.

Dweck

C. S.

(2020). What can be learned from growth mindset controversies? American Psychologist, 75(9), 1269–1284.

188.

Yeager

D. S.

Romero

Paunesku

Hulleman

C. S.

Schneider

Hinojosa

Lee

H. Y.

O’Brien

Flint

Roberts

Trott

Greene

Walton

G. M.

Dweck

C. S.

(2016). Using design thinking to improve psychological interventions: The case of the growth mindset during the transition to high school. Journal of Education & Psychology, 108(3), 374–391.

189.

Yoshida

Matsumoto

Akiyama

Moriyoshi

Furuiye

Ishii

Franklin

(2002). The Japanese returnee experience: Factors that affect reentry. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 26(4), 429–445.

190.

Yun

T. Z.

(2020). Entrepreneurship: Be brave and take chances. Retrieved January 27, 2021, from https://www.theedgemarkets.com/article/entrepreneurship-be-brave-and-take-chances

191.

Yusof

Jain

(2009). Entrepreneurial leadership and academic entrepreneurship in Malaysian public research universities. Asia Pacific Journal of Innovation and Entrepreneurship, 3(3), 63–84.

192.

Zander

Brouwer

Jansen

Crayen

Hannover

(2018). Academic self-efficacy, growth mindsets, and university students’ integration in academic and social support networks. Learning and Individual Differences, 62, 98–107.

193.

Zapkau

F. B.

Schwens

Steinmetz

Kabst

(2015). Disentangling the effect of prior entrepreneurial exposure on entrepreneurial intention. Journal of Business Research, 68(3), 639–653.

194.

Zhao

Seibert

S. E.

Hills

G. E.

(2005). The mediating role of self-efficacy in the development of entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(6), 1265–1272.

195.

Zingoni

Corey

C. M.

(2017). How mindset matters. Journal of Personnel Psychology, 16(1), 36–45.