Emotion-regulation abilities and skills are important determinants of performance success, as they lead to emotional stability and psychological well-being in the course of practicing and performing. Research on musicians’ emotionality has revealed a positive relationship between music performance anxiety (MPA) and the temperamental factors of emotional reactivity, low self-esteem, and maladaptive coping, with sex as a moderator in these relationships. In the current study, we attempted to analyze the structure of the relationships between selected variables using the assumptions of the developmental model of human emotionality as a framework for a proposed MPA regulation model. Students at music academies (N = 196) completed the EAS Temperament Survey, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, the modified Levels of Emotional Awareness Scale, the Brief-COPE Inventory, and the revised Kenny Music Performance Anxiety Inventory. The results confirm the regularities found in the general population, female musicians showing more intense negative emotionality, temperamental activity traits, emotional awareness, and the use of emotional support strategies. In turn, male musicians obtained medium results on measures of temperamental traits, and often used problem-orientation and perspective-change strategies for emotion regulation. In general, both male and female musicians scored within the medium range for MPA. Tests of the MPA regulation model showed two pathways from temperamental traits to coping strategies: from sociability to problem orientation, and from emotionality to perspective change. There was a positive relationship between the use of the problem-orientation strategy and MPA. The major predictor negatively related to MPA was the use of the perspective-change strategy. The direction of relationships may indicate that techniques for accepting experience are more effective than control techniques for reducing MPA in the context of public performance.
BarrettL. F. (2004). Feelings or words? Understanding the content in self-report ratings of experienced emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87(2), 266–281. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.87.2.266
4.
BarrettL. F.GrossJ. J. (2001). Emotional intelligence: A process model of emotion representation and regulation. In MayneT. J.BonannoG. A (Eds.), Emotions: Current issues and future directions (pp. 286–310). Guilford Press.
5.
BaumeisterR. F.CampbellJ. D.KruegerJ. I.VohsK. D. (2003). Does high self-esteem cause better performance, interpersonal success, happiness, or healthier lifestyles?Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4(1), 1–44. https://doi.org/10.1111/1529-1006.01431
6.
BiasuttiM.ConcinaE. (2014). The role of coping strategy and experience in predicting music performance anxiety. Musicae Scientiae, 18(2), 189–202. https://doi.org/10.1177/1029864914523282
7.
BishopS. J. (2009). Trait anxiety and impoverished prefrontal control of attention. Nature Neuroscience, 12(1), 92–98. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.2242
8.
BrackettM. A.RiversS. E.ShiffmanS.LernerN.SaloveyP. (2006). Relating emotional abilities to social functioning: A comparison of self-report and performance measures of emotional intelligence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(4), 780–795. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.91.4.780
9.
BurinA. B.BarbarA.NirenbergI. S.OsórioF. L. (2019). Music performance anxiety: Perceived causes, coping strategies and clinical profiles of Brazilian musicians. Trends in Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, 41(4), 348–357. https://doi.org/10.1590/2237-6089-2018-0104
10.
BurinA. B.OsórioF. L. (2016). Interventions for music performance anxiety: Results from a systematic literature review. Archives of Clinical Psychiatry, 43, 116–131. https://doi.org/10.1590/0101-60830000000097
11.
BussA. H.PlominR. (1984). Temperament: Early developing personality traits. Lawrence Earlbaum.
12.
CabelloR.SorrelM. A.Fernández-PintoI.ExtremeraN.Fernández-BerrocalP. (2016). Age and gender differences in ability emotional intelligence in adults: A cross-sectional study. Developmental Psychology, 52(9), 1486–1492. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000191
13.
CarverC. S. (1997). You want to measure coping but your protocol’ too long: Consider the Brief COPE. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 4(1), 92–100. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327558ijbm0401_6
CarverC. S.ScheierM. F.WeintraubJ. K. (1989). Assessing coping strategies: A theoretically based approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(2), 267–283. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.56.2.267
17.
ChangJ. C.MidlarskyE.LinP. (2003). Effects of meditation on music performance anxiety. Medical Problems of Performing Artists, 18(3), 126–130. https://doi.org/10.21091/mppa.2003.3022
18.
CiarrochiJ.HeavenP. C. L.FionaD. (2007). The impact of hope, self-esteem, and attributional style on adolescents’ school grades and emotional well-being: A longitudinal study. Journal of Research in Personality, 41(6), 1161–1178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2007.02.001
19.
ClarkD. A.BeckA. T. (2010). Cognitive theory and therapy of anxiety and depression: Convergence with neurobiological findings. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 14, 418–424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2010.06.007
20.
DienerE.DienerM. (1995). Cross-cultural correlates of life satisfaction and self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68(4), 653–663. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.68.4.653
21.
DobosB.PikoB. (2017). Risk and protective factors of music performance anxiety: The role of stress, self-esteem and self-efficacy. The European Health Psychologist, 19, 1046.
22.
DrigasA. S.PapoutsiC. (2018). A new layered model of emotional intelligence. Behavioral Sciences, 8(5), 45. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs8050045
23.
Else-QuestN. M.HydeJ. S.GoldsmithH. H.Van HulleC. A. (2006). Gender differences in temperament: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 132(1), 33–72. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.33
FurnhamA.ChengH. (2000). Perceived parental behaviour, self-esteem and happiness. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 35(10), 463–470. https://doi.org/10.1007/s001270050265
29.
GoldinP. R.ZivM.JazaieriH.HahnK.HeimbergR.GrossJ. J. (2013). Impact of cognitive-behavioural therapy for social anxiety disorder on the neural dynamics of cognitive reappraisal of negative self-beliefs: Randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry, 70(10), 1048–1056. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.234
30.
GrossJ. J. (1998). Antecendent- and response-focused emotion regulation: Divergent consequences for experience, expression, and physiology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(1), 224–237. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.1.224
31.
GrossJ. J. (2014). Emotion regulation: Conceptual and empirical foundations. In GrossJ. J (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 3–20). Guilford Press.
32.
GrossJ. J.JohnO. P. (2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 348–362. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348
33.
JuczyńskiZ.Ogińska-BulikN. (2009). NPSR. Narzędzia Pomiaru Stresu i Radzenia Sobie ze Stresem [NPSR. Tools for measuring stress & coping with stress]. Pracownia testów Psychologicznych PTP.
34.
JuncosD. G.MarkmanE. J. (2016). Acceptance and Commitment Therapy for the treatment of music performance anxiety: A single subject design with a university student. Psychology of Music, 44(5), 935–952. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735615596236
35.
Kabat-ZinnJ. (1990). Full catastrophe living: Using the wisdom of your body and mind to face stress, pain and illness. Delacorte.
36.
KaleńskaJ. (2004). Selected determinants of music performance anxiety: Temperament, emotional self-control, cognitive self-statements [Unpublished master’s thesis]. Jagiellonian University.
Kaleńska-RodzajJ. (2018). Waiting for the concert. Pre-performance emotions and the performance success of teenage music school students. Polish Psychological Bulletin, 49(3), 322–331. https://doi.org/10.24425/119499
39.
Kaleńska-RodzajJ. (2020). Pre-performance emotions and music performance anxiety beliefs in young musicians. Research Studies in Music Education, 42, 77–93. https://doi.org/10.1177/1321103X19830098
40.
Kaleńska-RodzajJ. (2021a). Music performance anxiety and pre-performance emotions in the light of psychology of emotion and emotion regulation. Psychology of Music, 49(6), 1758–1774. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735620961154
41.
Kaleńska-RodzajJ. (2021b). Psychologia tremy. Teoria i praktyka [The psychology of music performance anxiety. Theory and practice]. PWN.
42.
Kałużna-WielobóbA. (2017). The community feeling versus anxiety, self-esteem and well-being—Introductory research. Polish Psychological Bulletin, 48(2), 267–174. https://doi.org/10.1515/ppb-2017-0020
43.
Kantor-MartynuskaJ.KennyD. T. (2018). Psychometric properties of the Kenny-Music Performance Anxiety Inventory modified for general performance anxiety. Polish Psychological Bulletin, 49(3), 332–343. https://doi.org/10.24425/119500
44.
KelvinR. G.GoodyearI. M.AlthamP. M. E. (1996). Temperament and psychopathology amongst siblings of probands with depressive and anxiety disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 37(5), 543–550. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1996.tb01440.x
45.
KennyD. T. (2009). The factor structure of the Revised Kenny Music Performance Anxiety Inventory. In WilliamonA (Ed.), Proceedings of the international symposium on performance science (pp. 37–41). Association Européenne des Conservatoires.
46.
KennyD. T. (2011). The psychology of music performance anxiety. Oxford University Press.
KennyD. T.DriscollT.AckermannB. (2014). Psychological well-being in professional orchestral musicians in Australia: A descriptive population study. Psychology of Music, 42(2), 210–232. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735612463950
49.
KobylińskaD.KusevP. (2019). Flexible emotion regulation: How situational demands and individual differences influence the effectiveness of regulatory strategies. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, Article 72. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00072
LaneR. D.SchwartzG. E. (1987). Levels of emotional awareness: A cognitive-developmental theory and its application to psychopathology. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 144(2), 133–143. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.144.2.133
52.
LazarusR. S.FolkmanS. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer.
53.
LeBlancA. (1994). A theory of music performance anxiety. The Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning, 5, 60–68.
54.
LinP.ChangJ.ZemonV.MidlarskyE. (2008). Silent illumination: A study on Chan (Zen) meditation, anxiety, and musical performance quality. Psychology of Music, 36(2), 139–155. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735607080840
55.
LyonsJ. B.SchneiderT. R. (2005). The influence of emotional intelligence on performance. Personality and Individual Differences, 39(4), 693–703. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2005.02.018
56.
ManturzewskaM. (1974). Psychologiczne wyznaczniki powodzenia w studiach muzycznych [Psychological determinants of success in music studies]. COPSA.
57.
ManturzewskaM. (1990). A biographical study of the life-span development of professional musicians. Psychology of Music, 18(2), 112–139. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735690182002
58.
MarinM. M.BhattacharyaJ. (2013). Getting into the musical zone: Trait emotional intelligence and amount of practice predict flow in pianists. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, Article 853. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00853
59.
MasiG.MucciM.FavillaL.BrovedaniP.MillepiediS.PerugiG. (2003). Temperament in adolescents with anxiety and depressive disorders and in their families. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 33, 245–259. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021408714741
MayerJ. D.CarusoD. R.SaloveyP. (1999). Emotional intelligence meets traditional standards for an intelligence. Intelligence, 27(4), 267–298. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-2896(99)00016-1
62.
MayerJ. D.CarusoD. R.SaloveyP. (2016). The ability model of emotional intelligence: Principles and updates. Emotion Review, 8, 290–300. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073916639667
63.
McCormickJ.McPhersonG. (2003). The role of self-efficacy in a musical performance examination: An exploratory structural equation analysis. Psychology of Music, 31(1), 37–50. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735603031001322
McPhersonG. E.OsborneM. S.EvansP.MikszaP. (2019). Applying self-regulated learning microanalysis to study musicians’ practice. Psychology of Music, 47(1), 18–32. https://doi.org/10.1177/030573561773161
66.
MikszaP.TanL. (2015). Predicting collegiate wind players’ practice efficiency, flow, and self-efficacy for self-regulation: An exploratory study of relationships between teachers’ instruction and students’ practicing. Journal of Research in Music Education, 63, 162–179. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022429415583474
67.
MooreD. G.BurlandK.DavidsonJ. W. (2003). The social context of musical success: A developmental account. British Journal of Psychology, 94(4), 529–549. https://doi.org/10.1348/000712603322503088
68.
NeffK. (2003). Self-compassion: An alternative conceptualization of a healthy attitude toward oneself. Self and Identity, 2, 85–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860309032
69.
OniszczenkoW. (1997). Kwestionariusz Temperamentu EAS Arnolda H. Bussa i Roberta Plomina [EAS Temperament Questionnaire]. Pracownia Testów Psychologicznych PTP.
70.
OniszczenkoW.StanisławiakE.DąbrowskaA. D. (2014). EAS temperament traits, gender, age and religious fundamentalism in a Polish sample. Polish Psychological Bulletin, 45(1), 64–68. https://doi.org/10.2478/ppb-2014-0009
71.
OsborneM. S.GreeneD. J.ImmelD. T. (2014). Managing performance anxiety and improving mental skills in conservatoire students through performance psychology training: A pilot study. Psychology of Well-Being: Theory, Research and Practice, 4, 18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13612-014-0018-3
72.
OsowieckiD.CompasB. E. (1998). Psychological adjustment to cancer: Control beliefs and coping in adult cancer patients. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 22(5), 483–499. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018725716620
73.
PapageorgiI.HallamS.WelchG. (2007). A conceptual framework for understanding musical performance anxiety. Research Studies in Music Education, 28(1), 83–107. https://doi.org/10.1177/1321103X070280010207
74.
PatstonT.LoughlanT. (2014). Playing with performance: The use and abuse of beta-blockers in the performing arts. Victorian Journal of Music Education, 1, 3–10.
75.
Peña-SarrionandiaA.MikolajczakM.GrossJ. J. (2015). Integrating emotion regulation and emotional intelligence traditions: A meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, Article 160. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00160
76.
PenleyJ. A.TomakaJ.WiebeJ. S. (2002). The association of coping to physical and psychological health outcomes: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 25(6), 551–603. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1020641400589
77.
PonikiewskaK.StrusW.CieciuchJ. (2022). Revealing the hierarchical structure of temperamental constructs distinguished in eight theories. Acta Psychologica, 226, 103557. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2022.103557
78.
Purper-OuakilD. (2017). EAS temperament model. In Zeigler-HillV.ShackelfordT (Eds.), Encyclopedia of personality and individual differences (pp. 1–3). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_745-1
79.
RakeiA.TanJ.BhattacharyaJ. (2022). Flow in contemporary musicians: Individual differences in flow proneness, anxiety, and emotional intelligence. PLOS ONE, 17(3), Article e0265936. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265936
80.
RosenbergM. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton University Press.
81.
SaarniC. (1999). The development of emotional competence. Guilford Press.
82.
SadowskiA. (2020). Perfekcjonizm i trema u muzyków różnych specjalności [Perfectionism and music performance anxiety in musicians of different specialisations]. Płocki Instytut Wydawniczy.
Sánchez-NúñezM. T.Fernández-BerrocalP.MontañésJ.LatorreJ. M. (2008). Does emotional intelligence depend on gender? The socialization of emotional competencies in men and women and its implications. Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 6(2), 455–474.
85.
ScheierM. F.CarverC. S.BridgesM. W. (1994). Distinguishing optimism from neuroticism (and trait anxiety, self-mastery, and self-esteem): A reevaluation of the Life Orientation Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(6), 1063–1078. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.6.1063
86.
ShawT. A.JuncosD. G.WinterD. (2020). Piloting a new model for treating music performance anxiety: Training a singing teacher to use acceptance and commitment coaching with a student. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article 882. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00882
87.
SicaC.MagniC.GhisiM.AltoéG.SighinolfiC.ChiriL. R.FranceschiniS. (2008). Coping Orientation to Problems Experienced-Nuova Versione Italiana (COPE-NVI): uno strumento per la misura degli stili di coping. Psicoterapia Cognitiva e Comportamentale, 14(1), 27–53.
88.
SimoensV. L.PuttonenS.TervaniemiM. (2015). Are music performance anxiety and performance boost perceived as extremes of the same continuum?Psychology of Music, 43(2), 171–187. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735613499200
89.
SindenL. M. (1999). Music performance anxiety: Contributions of perfectionism, coping style, self-efficacy, and self-esteem. Dissertation Abstracts International, Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences, 60(3-A), 0590.
90.
SpielbergerC. D.GorsuchR. L.LusheneR.VaggP. R.JacobsG. A. (1983). Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Consulting Psychologists Press.
91.
SteptoeA.FidlerH. (1987). Stage fright in orchestral musicians: A study of cognitive and behavioral strategies in performance anxiety. British Journal of Psychology, 78, 241–249. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1987.tb02243.x
92.
StrelauJ. (1995). Temperament risk factor: The contribution of temperament to the consequences of the state of stress. In HobfollS. E.deVriesM. W (Eds.), Extreme stress and communities: Impact and intervention (pp. 63–81). Kluwer Academic.
93.
StrusW.PonikiewskaK.CieciuchJ. (2022). Reactivity and Activity as dimensions capturing both energetic and temporal aspects of behavior: Towards a reconceptualization of Jan Strelau’s basic temperament dimensions based on the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits. Personality and Individual Differences, 188, 111434. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.111434
94.
SzczygiełD.KolańczykA. (2000). Skala Poziomów Świadomości Emocji—adaptacja skali Lane’a i Schwartza [The polish adaptation of the levels of Emotional Awareness Scale]. Roczniki Psychologiczne, 3, 155–179.
95.
SzulcM.OlszakA. (2012). Wybrane psychologiczne wyznaczniki tremy koncertujących muzyków profesjonalistów i amatorów [Selected psychological factors related to music performance anxiety in professional and amateur musicians]. Estetyka i Krytyka, 25(2), 201–230.
96.
TayP.TingY. Y.TanK. Y. (2019). Sex and care: The evolutionary psychological explanations for sex differences in formal care occupations. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, Article 867. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00867
97.
TugadeM. M.FredricksonB. L. (2004). Resilient individuals use positive emotions to bounce back from negative emotional experiences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86(2), 320–333. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.86.2.320
98.
WatsonD.SulsJ.HaigJ. (2002). Global self-esteem in relation to structural models of personality and affectivity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(1), 185-197.
99.
ZawadzkiA.StrelauJ. (1997). Formalna Charakterystyka Zachowania- Kwestionariusz Temperamentu (FCZ-KT): podręcznik [Formal Characteristics of Behaviour—Temperament Inventory (FCB-TI): The handbook]. Pracownia Testów Polskiego Towarzystwa Psychologicznego.
100.
ZeidnerM.MatthewsG.RobertsR. D.MacCannC. (2003). Development of emotional intelligence: Towards a multi-level investment model. Human Development, 46(2–3), 69–96. https://doi.org/10.1159/000068580
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
