This paper deals with the differentiation and adaptive significance of musical, particularly singing behaviour. We discuss the relationship of speech and song and define song as a musical mode of speech. We argue for a focus on singing as the primary form of musical expression and discuss universal functions of singing as a mode of human communication and their possible adaptive significance. Starting from these universal capacities, from a number of recently discussed candidates for adaptive functions, and from the record of various cultural gender and biological sex differentiations related to music, a categorization of musical (particularly singing) behaviour, primarily based on sex differentiation, is proposed.
AndersonW., & MathiesenT. J. (2001). Damon. In New Grove Dictionary of Music.London: Macmillan.
2.
BalfourV. (1986). Rock Wives.New York: Beech Tree Books.
3.
KopiezR., & BrinkG. (1998). Fußball-Fangesänge: Eine Fanomenologie.Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann.
4.
BrownS. (2000). The “Musilanguage” Model of Music Evolution. In WallinN., MerkerB., & BrownS. (eds), The Origins of Music (271–300). Cambridge MA: MIT Press.
5.
CollinsS. A. (2000). Men's voices and women's choices. Animal Behaviour, 60, 773–80.
6.
CrossI. (2006). The Origins of Music. Some Stipulations on Theory. Music Perception, 23, 29–59.
7.
DanckertW. (1966). Tonreich und Symbolzahl in Hochkulturen und in der Primitivenwelt.Bonn: Bouvier.
8.
Des BarresP. (1987). I'm with the band. Confessions of a groupie.New York: Beech Tree Books.
9.
DissanayakeE. (2000). Antecedents of the Temporal Arts in Early Mother-Infant Interaction. In WallinN., MerkerB., & BrownS. (eds), The Origins of Music (389–410). Cambridge MA: MIT Press.
10.
DzhabaevDzhambul (1937). Mein Leben. Internationale Literatur, 12, 74–80.
11.
EggebrechtR. (1985). Sprachmelodische und musikalische Forschungen im Kulturvergleich. Dissertation, Univ. München.
12.
Eibl-EibesfeldtI. (1970). Liebe und Hass.München: Piper.
13.
Eibl-EibesfeldtI. (1986). Die Biologie des menschlichen Verhaltens.2nd Ed., München: Piper.
14.
Eibl-EibesfeldtI.SchiefenhövelW., & HeeschenV. (1989). Kommunikation bei den Eipo — Eine humanethologische Bestandsaufnahme.Berlin: Reimer.
15.
EpsteinD. (1995). Shaping Time. Music, the brain, and performance. New York.
16.
FalkD. (2004). Prelinguistic evolution in early hominins: Whence motherese?Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 27, 491–503.
17.
FeinbergD.R., JonesB.C., LittleA.C., BurtD.M., & PerrettD.I. (2005). Manipulations of fundamental and formant frequencies influence the attractiveness of human male voices. Animal Behaviour69, 561–68.
18.
FernaldA. (1992). Human maternal vocalizations to infants as biologically relevant signals: An evolutionary perspective. In BarkowJ.H., CosmidesL., & ToobyJ. (eds), The Adapted Mind (391–428). New York: Oxford University Press.
19.
FitchW.T. (2006). The Evolution of Music in Comparative Perspective. Cognition, 100, 173–215.
20.
FodorJ. (1983). The modularity of mind.Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
21.
FukuiH. (2001). Music and Testosterone: A New Hypothesis for the Origin and Function of Music. Annals of the N.Y. Academy of Sciences930, 448–51.
22.
GeissmannT. (2000). Gibbon Songs and Human Music from an Evolutionary Perspective. In WallinN., MerkerB., & BrownS. (eds), The Origins of Music (103–24). Cambridge MA: MIT Press.
23.
Gigerenzer (2001). Bounded Rationality: The Adaptive Toolbox.Cambridge MA: MIT Press.
24.
HagenE., & BryantG. (2003). Music and dance as a coalition signaling system. Human Nature, 14, 21–51.
25.
HasslerM. (1991). Testosterone and musical talent. Experimental and Clinical Endocrinology, 98, 89–98.
26.
HasslerM. (2002). Wie ist das aber bei Mädchen? Geschlechtsspezifische Unterschiede in der Entwicklung des kreativen musikalischen Potenzials. Üben und Musizieren5, 24–9.
27.
HiepkoP., & SchiefenhövelW. (1985). Die Pflanzenwelt aus der Sicht der Eipo (West-Neuguinea). In SchröderE. (ed), Ethnobotanik (283–88). Vieweg, Braunschweig, Wiesbaden.
28.
KoelschS., MaessB., GrossmannT., & FriedericiA.D. (2003). Electric brain responses reveal gender differences in music processing. Neuroreport, 14, 709–13.
29.
LehmannC. (in press). Singstreit, Ständchen und Signale. Zur Biologie und Evolution musikalischen Verhaltens. Diss. Univ. München. Berlin: Verlag Wissenschaft und Bildung.
30.
LehmannC., WelkerL., & SchiefenhövelW. (in press). Der Singstreit in humanethologischer Perspektive. Musicæ Scientiæ, 13.
31.
LomaxA. (1977). Universals in song. World of Music, 19, 117–29.
32.
LomaxA. (1980). Factors of Musical Style. In DiamondS. (ed), Theory and Practice: Essays presented to Gene Weltfish (29–58). The Hague: Monton.
33.
McDermottJ., & HauserM. (2005). The Origins of Music: Innateness, Uniqueness, and Evolution. Music Perception, 23, 29–59.
34.
McDermottJ., & HauserM. (2006). Thoughts on an Empirical Approach to the Evolutionary Origins of Music. Music Perception, 24, 111–16.
35.
McNeill, (1995). Keeping together in time.London: Harvard University Press.
36.
MerkerB. (2000). Synchronous Chorusing and Human Origins. In WallinN., MerkerB., & BrownS. (eds), The Origins of Music (315–28). Cambridge MA: MIT Press.
37.
MerkerB. (2006). The Uneven Interface between Culture and Biology in Human Music. Music Perception, 24, 95–8.
38.
MeyersC. (1993). “Drum-Dance-Song Ensemble: Women's Performance in Biblical Israel”, Rediscovering the Muses. In K. Marshall (ed), Women's Musical Traditions (49–67). Boston.
39.
MillerG. (2000.). Evolution of Human Music through Sexual Selection. In WallinN., MerkerB., & BrownS. (eds), The Origins of Music (329–60). Cambridge MA: MIT Press.
40.
MithenS. (2005). The Singing Neanderthals.London: Weidenfeld & Nicholson.
41.
MorleyI. (2002). Evolution of the Physiological and Neurological Capacities for Music. Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 12, 195–216.
42.
MorrisD. (1957). “Typical Intensity” and its Relations to the Problem of Ritualization. Behaviour, 11, 1–12.
43.
NettlB. (2000). An Ethnomusicologist Contemplates Musical Universals. In WallinN., MerkerB., & BrownS. (eds), The Origins of Music (463–72). Cambridge MA: MIT Press.
44.
PatelA. (2006). Musical Rhythm, Linguistic Rhythm, and Human Evolution. Music Perception, 24, 99–104.
45.
PapoušekM., & PapoušekH. (1981). Intutives elterliches Verhalten im Zwiegespräch mit dem Neugeborenen. Sozialpädiatrie in Klinik und Praxis, 3, 229–38.
46.
PeretzI. (2006). The nature of music from a biological perspective. Cognition, 100, 1–32.
47.
PinkerS. (1997). How the Mind Works.New York: Norton.
48.
PorterJ. (2001). Lament. In New Grove Dictionary of Music.London: Macmillan
49.
SchiefenhövelW. (1991). Eipo. In HaysT.E. (ed), Encyclopedia of World Cultures, Vol. II, Oceania (55–9). Boston: G.K. Hall & Co.
50.
SchiefenhövelW., SimonF., & HeunemannD.Film: Eipo (West-Neuguinea, Zentrales Hochland); “mote”, ein Besuchsfest in Munggona; “mote” — visiting feast in Munggona, No. E 2803, Institute for Scientific Film, Goettingen, Germany.
51.
SimonA. (1993). CD Musik aus dem Bergland West-Neuguineas, Irian Jaya, Vol. 1; Vol. 2. Staatliche Museen Preussischer Kulturbesitz, no. 20.
52.
SundbergJ. (1977). The Acoustics of the Singing Voice. Scientific American, 236, 82–91.
53.
TembrockG. (2000). Parameter der Stimme im sozialen Kontext. Eine vergleichende Betrachtung. In GeissnerH.K. (Hrsg), Stimmen hören (111–22). St. Ingbert: Röhrig.
54.
TitzeI.R. (1989). Physiologic and acoustic differences between male and female voices. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 85, 1699–707.
55.
ToobyJ., & CosmidesL. (1992). The psychological foundations of culture. In BarkowJ.H., CosmidesL., & ToobyJ. (eds), The adapted mind (19–136). New York: Oxford University Press.
56.
ToobyJ., & CosmidesL. (1997). Evolutionary Psychology: a Primer.Center for Evolutionary Psychology, University of California Santa Barbara. www.psych.ucsb.edu/research/cep/primer.html
57.
ToobyJ., & CosmidesL. (2001). Does Beauty Build Adapted Minds? Toward an Evolutionary Theory of Aesthetics, Fiction and the Arts. SubStance. A Review of Theory and Literary Criticism30, 6–27.
58.
TrehubS. E. (2000). Human Processing Predispositions and Musical Universals. In WallinN., MerkerB., & BrownS. (eds), The Origins of Music (427–48). Cambridge MA: MIT Press.
59.
TrehubS. E., & NakataT. (2001). Emotion and Music in Infancy. Musicæ Scientiæ, Special Issue 2001-2002, 37–59.
60.
TrehubS. E., & TrainorL.J. (1998). Singing to infants: Lullabies and play-songs. In Rovee-Collier, & LipsittL. (eds), Advances in Infancy Research (43–77). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
61.
TrehubS. E., UnykA. M., & TrainorL. J. (1993). Adults identify infant-directed music across cultures. Infant Behavior and Development, 16, 193–211.
62.
VaneechoutteM., & SkoylesJ. (1998). The memetic origin of language: modern humans as musical primates. Journal of Memetics — Evolutionary Models of Information Transmission, 2.
63.
WallinN., MerkerB., & BrownS. (2000). The Origins of Music.Cambridge MA: MIT Press.
64.
WelkerL. (2007). Kategorien musikalischen Verhaltens in evolutionärer Perspektive. In EiblK., MellmannK., & ZymnerR. (eds), Im Rücken der Kulturen (271–90). Paderborn: Mentis.
65.
WendlerJ., SeidnerW., KittelG., & EysholdtU. (1996). Lehrbuch der Phoniatrie und Pädaudiologie.Stuttgart, New York: Thieme.
66.
WermkeK. (2002). Developmental aspects of infant's cry melody and formants. Medical Engineering & Physics, 24, 501–14.
67.
ZahaviA. (1997). The handicap principle.Oxford: Oxford University Press.
68.
ZakS. (1979). Musik als “Ehr und Zier” im mittelalterlichen Reich. Studien zur Musik im höfischen Leben, Recht und Zeremoniell.Neuss: Paeffgen.
