This research describes a sustainable method for water purification using antimicrobial cellulose filters functionalized with silver and zinc oxide nanoparticles. Using the coordination chemistry of main group elements, citric acid and chitosan were employed to modify a biodegradable cellulose scaffold (Group 14 and 16 biopolymers). Tannic acid, an oxygen-rich plant polyphenol, served as a reducing and capping agent to immobilize nanoparticles. The resulting composites were characterized via FT-IR ATR, XRD, and SEM-EDX, confirming successful grafting and uniform distribution within the biopolymer matrix. Filtration assays against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Candida albicans demonstrated significant efficacy. Silver-loaded filters achieved near-complete inactivation of E. coli (∼99.84%), while zinc-loaded filters excelled against S. aureus (∼99.78%) and C. albicans (∼96.79%). Dual-metal filters provided balanced antimicrobial action (90.28–95.13%). Release assays confirmed minimal leaching, with negligible nanoparticle detachment and only trace organic release, ensuring environmental safety. This work highlights how the manipulation of main group chemical environments, specifically carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen-based ligands, facilitates metal stabilization. These eco-friendly filters offer a cost-effective solution for water disinfection in low-resource settings.
WolfJJohnstonRBAmbeluA, et al.Burden of disease attributable to unsafe drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene in domestic settings: a global analysis for selected adverse health outcomes. Lancet2023; 401: 2060–2071.
2.
LuoYLPanYRWangX, et al.Leveraging the water-environment-health nexus to characterize sustainable water purification solutions. Nat Commun2025; 16: 1–14.
3.
Recio-ColmenaresCLFlores-GómezJMorales RiveraJP, et al.Green materials for water and wastewater treatment: mechanisms and artificial intelligence. Processes2025; 13: 566.
4.
BhatKMRajagopalanJMallikarjunaiahR, et al.Eco-friendly and biodegradable green composites. Biocomposites. Epub ahead of print 31 August 2021. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.98687
De MouraMRMattosoLHCZucolottoV. Development of cellulose-based bactericidal nanocomposites containing silver nanoparticles and their use as active food packaging. J Food Eng2012; 109: 520–524.
7.
SharmaRJafariSMSharmaS. Antimicrobial bio-nanocomposites and their potential applications in food packaging. Food Control2020; 112: 107086.
8.
XuYLiSYueX, et al.Nanosilver-cellulose antibacterials. Bioresources2018; 13: 2150–2170.
9.
LiKClarksonCMWangL, et al.Alignment of cellulose nanofibers: harnessing nanoscale properties to macroscale benefits. ACS Nano2021; 15: 3646–3673.
10.
ChaudharyPRaoKMChoiSM, et al.Tannic acid-chitosan strengthened cellulose filter paper for water disinfection via formation of silver nanoparticles. Fibers and Polymers2021; 22: 2979–2985.
11.
ZhangWYangZYChengXW, et al.Adsorption, antibacterial and antioxidant properties of tannic acid on silk fiber. Polymers (Basel)2019; 11: 970.
12.
RubentherenVWardTACheeCY, et al.Physical and chemical reinforcement of chitosan film using nanocrystalline cellulose and tannic acid. Cellulose2015; 22: 2529–2541.
13.
TianSHuYChenX, et al.Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using sodium alginate and tannic acid: characterization and anti-S. aureus activity. Int J Biol Macromol2022; 195: 515–522.
14.
KimTYChaSHChoS, et al.Tannic acid-mediated green synthesis of antibacterial silver nanoparticles. Arch Pharm Res2016; 39: 465–473.
15.
HuangJChengYWuY, et al.Chitosan/tannic acid bilayers layer-by-layer deposited cellulose nanofibrous mats for antibacterial application. Int J Biol Macromol2019; 139: 191–198.
16.
HaapakoskiMEmelianovAReshamwalaD, et al.Antiviral functionalization of cellulose using tannic acid and tannin-rich extracts. Front Microbiol2023; 14: 1287167.
17.
SirelkhatimAMahmudSSeeniA, et al.Review on zinc oxide nanoparticles: antibacterial activity and toxicity mechanism. Nanomicro Lett2015; 7: 219–242.
18.
PalSNisiRStoppaM, et al.Silver-Functionalized bacterial cellulose as antibacterial membrane for wound-healing applications. ACS Omega2017; 2: 3632–3639.
19.
SalamaA. Dicarboxylic cellulose decorated with silver nanoparticles as sustainable antibacterial nanocomposite material. Environ Nanotechnol Monit Manag2017; 8: 228–232.
20.
TippayawatPPhromviyoNBoueroyP, et al.Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles in aloe vera plant extract prepared by a hydrothermal method and their synergistic antibacterial activity. PeerJ2016; 4: e2589.
21.
DakalTCKumarAMajumdarRS, et al.Mechanistic basis of antimicrobial actions of silver nanoparticles. Front Microbiol2016; 7: 231711.
22.
PraveenaSMHanLSThanLTL, et al.Preparation and characterisation of silver nanoparticle coated on cellulose paper: evaluation of their potential as antibacterial water filter. J Exp Nanosci2016; 11: 1307–1319.
23.
ChienH-WTsaiM-YKuoC-J, et al.Well-Dispersed silver nanoparticles on cellulose filter paper for bacterial removal. Nanomaterials2021; 11: 595.
24.
KadiyalaUTurali-EmreESBahngJH, et al.Unexpected insights into antibacterial activity of zinc oxide nanoparticles against methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Nanoscale2018; 10: 4927–4939.
25.
SiddiqiKSur RahmanATajuddin, et al.Properties of zinc oxide nanoparticles and their activity against microbes. Nanoscale Res Lett2018; 13: 1–13.
26.
YassinMTAl-OtibiFOAl-AskarAA, et al.Synergistic anticandidal effectiveness of greenly synthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles with antifungal agents against nosocomial candidal pathogens. Microorganisms2023; 11: 1957.
27.
JayachandranAAswathyTRNairAS. Green synthesis and characterization of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Cayratia pedata leaf extract. Biochem Biophys Rep2021; 26: 100995.
28.
VenisRABasuOD. Silver and zinc oxide nanoparticle disinfection in water treatment applications: synergy and water quality influences. H2Open Journal2021; 4: 114–128.
29.
SalamaAAbouzeidREOwdaME, et al.Cellulose–silver composites materials: preparation and applications. Biomolecules2021; 11: 1684.
30.
TeixeiraMOMarinhoESilvaC, et al.Pullulan hydrogels as drug release platforms in biomedicine. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol2023; 89: 105066.
DemitriCDel SoleRScaleraF, et al.Novel superabsorbent cellulose-based hydrogels crosslinked with citric acid. J Appl Polym Sci2008; 110: 2453–2460.
33.
PonnusamyPGSundaramJManiS. Preparation and characterization of citric acid crosslinked chitosan-cellulose nanofibrils composite films for packaging applications. J Appl Polym Sci2022; 139: 52017.
34.
OnyszkoMMarkowska-SzczupakARakoczyR, et al.The cellulose fibers functionalized with star-like zinc oxide nanoparticles with boosted antibacterial performance for hygienic products. Sci Rep2022; 12: 1–13.
35.
KatwaLCRamakrishnaMRaoMRR. Spectrophotometric assay of immobilized tannase. J Biosci1981; 3: 135–142.
36.
RajendranNKGeorgeBPHoureldNN, et al.Synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Rubus fairholmianus root extract and their activity against pathogenic Bacteria. Molecules2021; 26: 3029.
37.
HeXGopinathKSathishkumarG, et al.UV-Assisted Deposition of antibacterial ag-tannic acid nanocomposite coating. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2021; 13: 20708–20717.
38.
BalouiriMSadikiMIbnsoudaSK. Methods for in vitro evaluating antimicrobial activity: a review. J Pharm Anal2016; 6: 71–79.
39.
CarlmarkAMalmströmE. Atom transfer radical polymerization from cellulose fibers at ambient temperature. J Am Chem Soc2002; 124: 900–901.
40.
SuterEKRuttoHLSeodigengTS, et al.Recycled pulp and paper sludge, potential source of cellulose: feasibility assessment and characterization. J Environ Sci Health, Part A2023; 58: 1061–1071.
41.
WahyonoTAstutiDAWiryawanG, et al.Fourier Transform mid-infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy to identify tannin compounds in the panicle of Sorghum mutant lines. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng2019; 546: 042045.
42.
FalcãoLAraújoMEM. Application of ATR–FTIR spectroscopy to the analysis of tannins in historic leathers: the case study of the upholstery from the 19th century Portuguese royal train. Vib Spectrosc2014; 74: 98–103.
43.
TondiGPetutschniggA. Middle infrared (ATR FT-MIR) characterization of industrial tannin extracts. Ind Crops Prod2015; 65: 422–428.
44.
HaoYZhangNLuoJ, et al.Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles by tannic acid with improved catalytic performance towards the reduction of methylene blue. Nano2018; 13: 1850003.
45.
ZmozinskiAVPeresRSFreibergerK, et al.Zinc tannate and magnesium tannate as anticorrosion pigments in epoxy paint formulations. Prog Org Coat2018; 121: 23–29.
46.
FonerHAAdanN. The characterization of papers by X-ray diffraction (XRD): measurement of cellulose crystallinity and determination of mineral composition. J Forensic Sci Soc1983; 23: 313–321.
47.
HeMLiWDChenJC, et al.Immobilization of silver nanoparticles on cellulose nanofibrils incorporated into nanofiltration membrane for enhanced desalination performance. npj Clean Water2022; 5: 1–9.
48.
AliMHAzadMAKKhanKA, et al.Analysis of crystallographic structures and properties of silver nanoparticles synthesized using PKL extract and nanoscale characterization techniques. ACS Omega2023; 8: 28133–28142.
49.
JyotsnaC. Synthesis and characterization of Ni and Cu Doped Zno. MOJ Polymer Sci1. Epub ahead of print 11 April 2017. DOI: 10.15406/mojps.2017.01.00005
50.
KhikaniMIsopencuGODeleanuIM, et al.Green synthesis of nanoparticle-loaded bacterial cellulose membranes with antibacterial properties. J Comp Sci2024; 8: 475.
51.
KimJKwonSOstlerE. Antimicrobial effect of silver-impregnated cellulose: potential for antimicrobial therapy. J Biol Eng2009; 3: 1–9.
52.
HanifZKhanZASiddiquiMF, et al.Tannic acid-mediated rapid layer-by-layer deposited non-leaching silver nanoparticles hybridized cellulose membranes for point-of-use water disinfection. Carbohydr Polym2020; 231: 115746.
53.
AnnLCMahmudSBakhoriSKM, et al.Antibacterial responses of zinc oxide structures against Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Streptococcus pyogenes. Ceram Int2014; 40: 2993–3001.
54.
GhayempourSMontazerMMahmoudi RadM. Tragacanth gum biopolymer as reducing and stabilizing agent in biosonosynthesis of urchin-like ZnO nanorod arrays: a low cytotoxic photocatalyst with antibacterial and antifungal properties. Carbohydr Polym2016; 136: 232–241.
55.
DjearamaneSXiuLJWongLS, et al.Antifungal properties of zinc oxide nanoparticles on Candida albicans. Coatings2022; 12: 1864.
56.
HaiderAHaiderSKangIK, et al.A novel use of cellulose based filter paper containing silver nanoparticles for its potential application as wound dressing agent. Int J Biol Macromol2018; 108: 455–461.
57.
WangLLiuLLiuY, et al.Antimicrobial performance of novel glutathione-conjugated silver nanoclusters (GSH@AgNCs) against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus by membrane-damage and biofilm-inhibition mechanisms. Food Res Int2022; 160: 111680.
58.
KimJSKukEYuKN, et al.Antimicrobial effects of silver nanoparticles. Nanomedicine2007; 3: 95–101.
59.
JiangJ. Silver nanoparticles prepared using Magnolia officinalis are an effective antimicrobial agent on Candida albicans, Escherichia coli, and Staphylococcus aureus. Probiotics Antimicrob Proteins2023; 17: 625–639.
60.
KimS-HLeeH-SRyuD-S, et al.Antibacterial activity of silver-nanoparticles against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. Microbiol Biotechnol Lett2011; 39: 77–85.
