Abstract
This study explores the developmental experiences of youth sport participants across various contexts, focusing on the outcomes and the role of facilitative coaching practices. Using qualitative analysis of interviews with 38 participants aged 15 to 18 from various sports and competitive levels, the research offers in-depth insights into how youth perceive development through sports. Findings highlight sports as essential for psychosocial growth, fostering character traits and connection skills, such as resilience and teamwork. Facilitative coaching practices are identified as pivotal to these developmental processes, with effective practices and outcomes shown to vary across contexts and socioeconomic backgrounds. This study provides insights into leveraging sports for positive youth development. It advances our knowledge of how young people perceive and experience developmental processes within various sporting contexts, particularly emphasizing the contextual interplay between facilitative coaching practices and developmental outcomes across differing contexts.
Keywords
Introduction
“Fighting, basically, is to overcome things, that is what we learn here. You know, Mo [coach] taught me that when you get into boxing, you get into the cave. Scary, really. All you have in the dark is yourself and you have to find your way. You learn to do that. You learn to face things, to… to free yourself. Not just from others[but] from yourself. I saw a post on Insta[gram] about telling the truth. Some research thing, it says that when you tell the truth your body releases happy hormones. Like, when you confess, when you make things right. It made me sense to me, because this is what this sport means to me, this is why I keep to coming back to this place.”
This quote from Adam,1 a youth sport participant, emphasizes how youth experience sport as a source of inspiration for personal development and freedom. It also underscores the nuanced and contextual subjectivity of developmental experiences in youth sport. Correspondingly, research suggests that specific youth sport environments cultivate unique sets of values, behaviors, and outcomes (Riffi Acharki et al., 2023; Bean et al., 2021). However, the ways in which youth experience these developmental processes and the facilitative coaching practices employed by coaches remain areas in need of further exploration. This study examines the developmental experiences of youth sport participants across various sport environments, focusing on the developmental outcomes they associate with their sport involvement and the underlying coaching practices they attribute to these experiences. The central research question is: What outcomes and underlying facilitative coaching practices do youth experience across different sport contexts?
Research has shown that sport serves as a potential source of psychosocial development opportunities for youth (Newman et al., 2021). For instance, sport participation has been positively associated with the formation of social networks (Lawson, 2010; Spaaij, 2012) and the promotion of social inclusion (Carr and Power, 2020). Furthermore, those involved in sport also perceive it as a means to build character and foster social connections (Legg, 2021). At the same time, research cautions that development through sport is contingent upon the pedagogical climate, coaching strategies, and structural conditions that facilitate life skill acquisition and transfer (Camiré et al., 2022; Camiré et al., 2023; Holt et al., 2017; Newman et al., 2021; Pierce et al., 2018). Specifically, scholars argue that coaches play a pivotal role in shaping the quality of these experiences, as their actions significantly influence the pedagogical quality of program delivery (Bean et al., 2021; Newman et al., 2021) and the extent to which youth acquire positive developmental experiences and outcomes (Chu and Zhang, 2019). Consequently, scholars advocate for intentional design and coach education in youth sport practices to foster development (Camiré and Santos, 2019).
A substantial body of research has focused on identifying outcomes of youth sport participation and the coaching practices that facilitate development. This research encompasses both coaches’ values—the guiding principles underpinning their philosophy—and their behaviors, which are the observable actions manifesting these principles (Schaillée et al., 2019). Newman and Alvarez’s Wave Model (2015) outlines structured coaching stages—assessment, strategy implementation, debriefing, and evaluation—to facilitate positive youth development (PYD). Holt et al. (2017) emphasize that a well-structured PYD climate, combined with intentional pedagogical strategies, strengthens life skill acquisition and transfer. Similarly, Pierce et al. (2018) highlight the importance of structured reflection and guided application for effective transfer. Also, Newman et al. (2021) identify implicit (e.g. fostering autonomy and team culture) and explicit (e.g. direct instruction and structured debriefing) facilitative coaching practices. While many programs rely on implicit strategies, research suggests explicit approaches, such as guided discussions and transfer-focused activities, enhance life skill development. Bean et al. (2018) propose an implicit/explicit continuum, while Camiré (2023) expands this with a two-continua model, integrating a normative/transformative dimension to guide life skills teaching. Additionally, Adventure Pedagogy (Newman et al., 2021) emphasizes emotional safety and group challenges to support structured learning and skill transfer. Recent critiques, however, highlight the individualistic framing of life skills coaching, arguing for a more socially conscious approach that accounts for systemic inequalities in sport (Camiré et al., 2022). These and other perspectives collectively reinforce the role of coaches as facilitators of both skill development and meaningful transfer, underscoring the importance of intentional and adaptable coaching practices.
Much of this previous research targets specific programs without considering their application in broader contexts, such as the volunteer-based, after-school youth sport model. Therefore, the facilitative coaching practices outlined in theory should not be considered fixed formulas for pedagogical sport practices but rather adapted to specific contexts and critically evaluated (Debognies et al., 2019). This necessitates understanding the role of contextual factors within youth sport environments, including the type of sport, level of participation, age, gender, and socioeconomic status of participants, as well as external factors such as social networks and facility availability.
Particularly, we advocate that sports type, competition level and socioeconomic status (SES) are especially important to consider as potential moderators. Highly competitive sport settings often introduce distinct pressures and an emphasis on winning that can overshadow personal development (Bean et al., 2021). Also, research suggests measurable differences in program quality and youth developmental experiences between competitive and recreational sport contexts (Camiré et al., 2023). Similarly, socioeconomic status shapes youth sport experiences; youth from lower-SES backgrounds often have limited access to organized sport programs and facilities, higher dropout rates due to financial constraints, and a lower sense of belonging in sport clubs due to exclusionary dynamics that make it harder for them to feel included (Evans et al., 2017; Haudenhuyse et al., 2020; Kingsley and Spencer-Cavaliere, 2015). Yet, these contextual factors have received limited attention in research, leaving a gap in understanding how youth experience developmental processes across diverse sport contexts (Debognies et al., 2019).
Although the critical role of coaches and facilitative coaching practices in youth development through sports is widely recognized (Newman et al., 2021), there is limited research on how youth experience these practices and what outcomes they perceive across a broad range of sports and participant backgrounds (Debognies et al., 2019). We assert that understanding these contextual experiences of youth is essential, as neglecting contextual research on youths’ experiences may lead to the decontextualization and universalization of youth sport experiences and impacts (Kochanek and Erickson, 2019). Aligned with our central research question, this study seeks to enhance our understanding of how youth perceive and experience developmental outcomes in various sport contexts. Specifically, it explores the role of facilitative coaching practices in shaping these outcomes and addressing youth needs. In doing so, this research responds to calls for a more contextualized understanding of youth sport, as highlighted by Evans et al. (2017) and Newman et al. (2021). Rather than providing an exhaustive account, the study contributes to the advancement of scholarship by offering insights into how youth sport operates, for whom, and in what contexts, aligning with the inquiries posed by Haudenhuyse et al. (2020).
Youth sport in the Netherlands
In the Netherlands, sports play a significant role, particularly among the youth. As of 2019, the Dutch Olympic Committee and Dutch Sports Federation (NOCNSF) reported 5.1 million sports memberships out of the country's 17.3 million residents, with approximately 1.4 million (27%) of these memberships belonging to individuals aged 5 to 18. Notable gender disparities exist, with boys predominantly participating in organized sports clubs, while girls are more likely to engage in sports outside of such structures. Football remains the most popular sport for boys, with 463,000 members, exceeding the combined membership of the next nine most popular sports. For girls, gymnastics holds the top position, though the increasing success of the national women's football team has contributed to a rise in female participation in football (NOCNSF, 2023). Socioeconomic factors further complicate youth sport participation. Despite efforts to promote inclusivity, financial barriers and cultural differences contribute to unequal access. Sports such as (kick)boxing and futsal are more popular among youth from less advantaged backgrounds, whereas hockey and horse riding are generally more accessible to those from wealthier families (Andersen and Bakken, 2019).
The European Union shares similar patterns with the Dutch youth sport model, characterized by widespread participation, gender disparities, and the impact of socioeconomic factors on access and involvement (European Commission, 2022). Both the Netherlands and the EU acknowledge the importance of sports in youth development and are actively working to address these challenges through various initiatives at both national and EU levels (NOCNSF, 2023).
Methods
Researcher positionality
This study adopts a social constructivist epistemology, acknowledging that knowledge is co-constructed between researcher and participants, and shaped by context, language, and interaction. All observations and interviews were conducted by the first author, who was raised in an immigrant family in Amsterdam Slotervaart and has been actively involved in football and boxing since childhood. This background fostered trust and rapport, allowing for deeper engagement with participants’ language, practices, and lived experiences. At the same time, it shaped the research process in various ways—from the framing of interview questions to the interpretation of meaning in youth narratives. To mitigate potential bias and ensure analytical distance, the researcher maintained reflexivity through critical self-reflection, the use of research diaries, and regular discussions with co-authors and supervisors.
Participants
A total of 38 youth sport participants (aged 15–18 years) were interviewed. All participants were affiliated with sports clubs across various districts in the Netherlands, representing athletics, dance, equestrian activities, football (soccer), gymnastics, handball, hockey, Brazilian jiujitsu, judo, karate, (kick)boxing, korfball, skating, taekwondo, tennis, water polo, and wrestling. To capture a diversity of perspectives, selection criteria included sport type, competitive level, and inferred SES. SES categorization was determined using a multifaceted approach, incorporating direct inquiries to youth regarding housing, family composition, parental education, and employment, as well as insights from coaches on youth backgrounds. This information was then synthesized and categorized into low, middle, or high SES. Sporting levels were classified based on team admission processes (open or selective), the club's or team's competitive orientation (recreational or career-oriented), and formal competition tiers, which are structured within the club's organizational framework rather than based on self-assessment. This approach enabled richer comparisons and the identification of patterns of similarity and difference across various sporting contexts (Table 1).
Characteristics of youth sport participants.
SES: socioeconomic status.
Procedures
Recruitment occurred in two phases. In the first phase, we recruited coaches to gain access to various sporting communities. Specifically, we engaged two coaches per sport among Amsterdam's five most popular sports—football (soccer), athletics, gymnastics, hockey, and korfball. These coaches, appointed by the Municipality of Amsterdam, agreed to participate. To enhance diversity, we used snowball sampling to select additional coaches from different sports, clubs, locations, and competition levels. These coaches had previously been interviewed for an earlier study.
The second phase, which this article focuses on, involved recruiting youth participants (aged 12–18) through a combination of snowball sampling and direct outreach. The engaged coaches nominated young people they coached, whom we then invited to participate. Participants were encouraged to recommend teammates who could contribute further. Additionally, we directly contacted youth athletes at sports clubs and three Amsterdam schools, inviting them to participate voluntarily. Initially, we approached 50 athletes, resulting in a final sample of 38 participants. To ensure diversity, we continuously monitored representation across sport types, participation levels, and socioeconomic backgrounds, adjusting our recruitment strategies as needed. As recruitment progressed, we expanded outreach to underrepresented clubs and increasingly engaged in direct recruitment by visiting sports clubs, approaching coaches, and facilitating access to youth participants. The study procedures were reviewed and approved through the Sociology Department's ethics assessment process at the University of Amsterdam.
Interviews
Semistructured interviews, lasting approximately 1 hour, explored participants’ backgrounds, club environment, sporting engagement and experiences, experienced outcomes and transfer and coaching behaviors. The interviews began with conversational introductory questions to gather demographic information—including age, gender, education, SES, and family composition—ensuring a natural transition into broader discussions on the club environment and their sporting engagement. These discussions covered club values, demographic composition (age and gender distribution), competitive levels, and socioeconomic diversity.
Building on this foundation, open-ended questions encouraged participants to reflect on outcomes and transfer (e.g. “Has your involvement in this sport affected other areas of your life?”). The discussion then progressed to underlying facilitative coaching practices, including coaching behaviors and values (e.g. “Can you describe a typical training session?”). Youth primarily reflected on their current coaches, but they occasionally discussed past coaches, parents, or teachers, providing additional context and comparisons.
As the interviews progressed, more specific and reflective prompts encouraged detailed responses (e.g. “Can you describe a moment when your coach made a difference in your motivation?”). The interviews concluded with reflections on how coaching practices shaped athletes’ experiences beyond sport, reinforcing earlier discussions on coaching mechanisms and their broader implications. This approach ensured a natural flow while systematically exploring key themes related to psychosocial outcomes and coaching practices, particularly emphasizing the mechanisms through which coaches facilitated life skills development and transfer beyond sport.
Data analysis
We manually coded and interpreted interview transcripts using Atlas.ti, guided by reflexive thematic analysis. This approach emphasized deep engagement with the data, critical reflection, and contextual consideration. Following an inductive strategy, initial familiarization with the data involved preliminary notes to construct initial insights and potential coding strategies. To ensure rigor, coding was systematically structured, with iterative refinement of categories and the development of reflective notes to justify coding decisions (e.g. interpreting an athlete's strategy for handling adversity as “Acceptance”). Relationships between codes were explored (e.g. the link between experiencing pain and its perceived inevitability).
Credibility was enhanced through member checks, where participants were invited to review summaries of key findings, and peer review by the first author's PhD supervisors (including the second and third authors), who provided critical feedback on coding consistency and thematic interpretations. These measures minimized bias and ensured consistency.
Data collection continued until thematic saturation was reached, meaning that no substantially new themes were generated in later interviews. Saturation was achieved with fewer interviews for youth than for coaches, likely due to the narrower scope of youth responses, which tended to focus on personal experiences, whereas coaches’ perspectives encompassed a broader range of influences, including program structures, coaching philosophies, and athlete development trajectories. Additional themes beyond the study's scope were noted but not pursued further due to time constraints.
Results
This section presents findings on youths’ perceived meanings and developmental outcomes. It describes youth sport participants’ views on sports as a vehicle for developing character and connection skills, as well as the role of coaching in this process. Insights from youth illustrate the multifaceted influence of sports participation, which will be further explored in the discussion section that follows.
Meaning and developmental outcomes
The young people who participated in this study perceived sports participation as more than merely a physical activity. Rather, they viewed it as a source of inspiration for developing life skills that extend to broader goals, such as fostering social inclusion and enhancing overall wellbeing. They shared perspectives on the fundamental significance of sport, regarding it as an inherent necessity, an essential component of a healthy lifestyle, and a mental outlet that enables them to navigate life's challenges. Specifically, in terms of sport as a mental outlet, youth expressed a diversity of perspectives. Firstly, sport was seen as a means of escaping pressures experienced in school and society, particularly among youth in general and those in pre-academic education, as noted by Kym-Marley. Moreover, youths from low socioeconomic backgrounds reported using sports as a way to alleviate stress stemming from challenging home environments, as highlighted by Seline. Kym-Marley: School really has a full schedule. […] So I see football as a bit of a getaway: ‘okay, now I can just do my hobby, my passion, just take a break’. Some youth may see it as an escape to clear their heads, just focusing on something else. Seline: When something is troubling me and I go to dance, [there] I can let go of all that is happening in my personal life at that time. […] Yes, you're just dancing and enjoying it, and the rest doesn't matter for a while…until you get home again.
Furthermore, youth attributed meaning to sport through various developmental outcomes, which we categorized through an iterative process as connection skills, referring to interpersonal relationship-building and social understanding, and character development, encompassing qualities and capabilities that aid adaptability to life challenges. None of the identified developmental outcomes were exclusive to a particular youth sport context, although several outcomes were more prevalent or held unique meanings in certain contexts. Further elaboration on this will be provided in the following sections.
Connection skills
Youth reported a variety of connection skills that they developed and continue to develop through sport. Through data analysis, we identify network development, communication skills and social “game insight.”
Concerning network development, youth reported finding peers of similar age and interests in sports. They depicted the sports club as a venue for meeting and making new friends, thereby expanding their social network. In selected examples, Ayoub highlighted how football serves as a common ground to connect with new friends, while Mohammed describes how Taekwondo functioned as a meeting place for making new friends. These friendships frequently extended beyond the sports club into long-term relationships, facilitated by intentional efforts such as creating online friend groups and chance encounters in neighborhood facilities, such as community centers. Ayoub: I've gotten to know a lot of people. […] Because you have, let's say, a kind of community, and that's the footballers. And if you, for example, show somewhere that you can play football, then you immediately belong to that group of people who play football. And then you can also relate to the people who play football. […] You enjoy it, and probably you also enjoy watching football, tricks, teams, and ‘who is your favorite player?’ […] I have met a lot of people who eventually became good, best friends. Mohammed: I have made quite a few friends through sports. Sometimes I meet them back home, like, ‘oh yeah, you were in my Taekwondo class. How are you?’. And also, there are often new kids coming in, introducing themselves and then I meet new people.
Secondly, participants in youth sport reported the development of communication skills, particularly their proficiency in providing and receiving feedback, as highlighted in Ahlam's interview. In this context, youth state that their involvement in sports clubs exposes them to real-world challenges, thereby contributing to the acquisition of practical knowledge, particularly in relation to interpersonal interactions and navigating social dynamics. Furthermore, they underscore the importance of these sports settings in refining their capacity to engage in conversations with individuals beyond their usual social circles. Ahlam: Yeah, you learn to revise your way of talking as well. For example, if you're just sitting there yelling at them [teammates] that you're much better, you won't get any far. But because you are part of the team yourself. So, you just have to rethink […] your way of talking…Yes, so you learn how to convey your feedback message to others, so to speak.
Youth highlighted development of the understanding of relations and communication, with one participant (Yassir) characterizing it as “like game insight, but then, specifically, a social game insight, regarding people.” This theme recurred among youth in general, but it was particularly pronounced among those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. Within this category, respondents consistently reported skills, including a comprehension of people, familiarity with informal rules and norms, and the capability to adapt to various roles, personalities, and perspectives. For example, concerning informal norms and rules, Chante explained how she learned that favoritism is related to merit and position and how this applies to the world beyond the sport context. Chante: it comes down to the fact that I started to understand things like why people were favored […] I found it disturbing when I didn't understand [it]. But he [coach] did teach me that sometimes, as you move up per position, so per level, you are gradually given more freedom. […] That's how it works everywhere, of course.
Furthermore, Zeyna exemplified this point by explaining how her involvement in sports provided her with insights into the diversity of people in terms of personality and perspective. This experience also refined her ability to “adapt” to individuals with varying traits. Similarly, Sabir offered a comparable perspective, stating that his youth sport experience taught him to navigate and adjust to diverse role patterns, learning how to “play along.” Zeyna: Through sports, I've met a lot of people, and I've learned that not everyone is like you and that you have to learn to adjust to other people. Sabir: At first, I got angry quite often, for example if I had something against the teachers, I became brutal. But now, yes, I'm being respectful. I let the teacher finish talking and then I come up with my story. I learned to play along like that.
Furthermore, character development was identified as a key outcome of sports participation, detailed in the next section.
Character development
Youth consistently reported character development as a central outcome of sports participation. Through systematic analysis, this development is categorized into themes such as discipline and work ethic, resilience, and opinion independence. Discipline and work ethic, often grouped together due to their frequent co-occurrence, were defined by the youth as possessing a deep understanding of, and a commitment to, adhering to required standards, along with demonstrating reliability. For example, Evie explained how her experience in sports instills these values: Evie: Yes, particularly in terms of keeping commitments. There are instances when I canceled a competition for a festival or a party, and I was directly told: ‘This is not acceptable, because you are part of a team, and such actions affect everyone. Your absence means we can't play the match, and that's not okay.’
Respondents explained that their experiences in sports provide them with an understanding of discipline and work ethic. Based on their descriptions, it appears they gain insight into the deeper implications of these values, viewing them as relevant in both sports and broader life contexts. Youth reported that sports have fostered a profound appreciation for discipline and work ethic as fundamental principles guiding their approach to challenges and the pursuit of goals across various life domains. They recognize that a strong work ethic is essential for personal improvement, team cohesion, and overall enjoyment of the game. Additionally, they acknowledge that sports participation encourages the consistent practice of “working hard,” both within and beyond the sports context. For instance, Kym-Marley shared how his sports experience reinforces the lessons taught by his parents, highlighting the importance of discipline and the need to “fight” for success. Attributes such as punctuality, thorough preparation, constructive communication, and reliability were frequently mentioned as concrete examples of these principles in action. Kym-Marley: My parents always emphasize that success isn't handed to you on a silver platter. You must work for it, and this applies not just in sports but also in society. […] You really must fight for your place to ultimately reach the top. This is a mindset I learned through sports. If you don't train hard, you won't start as part of the starting team in a match. Over time, you realize this, like: ‘Okay, I really have to work hard to earn a starting position.’
During discussions on the meaning and relevance of discipline, youth—particularly those from low socioeconomic backgrounds—emphasized the challenge of maintaining discipline under difficult circumstances, both within and beyond the sports context. This aspect was identified as resilience. Youth sport participants described resilience as the mental capacity, often referred to as a “mindset,” to pursue goals with discipline despite facing difficulties and insecurities, particularly the social challenges frequently experienced by youth from low socioeconomic backgrounds. They identified various abilities associated with resilience, such as coping with fatigue, overcoming failure, managing feelings of insecurity, and developing self-confidence.
For example, Zeyna illustrated how coaches play a role in fostering resilience by creating experiences of success and boosting self-confidence. While not solely attributed to coaches, youth also reported that coaches are instrumental in teaching them that failure and physical discomfort are less intimidating than initially perceived. Coaches encourage youth to view these challenges as inherent aspects of both sports and life that can be overcome and learned from. Zeyna: But there are coaches, for example, if you think, ‘I can't do it, and I won't do it,’ then he'll make you work. ‘You can do it,’ and then, he makes you do so much that you eventually see that you can. Then you also feel like: ‘hey, I can actually do it.’ And so, I have learned this through sports, also in other aspects of life. For example, with school. When I was taking a test and I thought: ‘Hey, I can't do it, forget about it,’ and then I thought, ‘but do you remember that one time when you could do it in the end?’ I've had that [experience] with school and different things as well.
Finally, youth reported that sports participation stimulates a sense of opinion independence, which they primarily describe as developing an independent attitude toward others’ opinions. We identified three main explanations regarding how sports participation facilitates this sense of opinion independence. First, the young people commonly explained that, through their sports experiences, they developed a sense of self-confidence, making them less susceptible to others’ opinions, as exemplified by Rukiye. Second, they frequently mentioned that sports have accustomed them to being observed and subjected to (often intense) criticism from coaches, peers, parents, and other parties. This experience made them less influenced by opinions in everyday life, as noted by Selina. Third, some youth expressed that sports teach them to focus on their own goals, thereby reducing the significance of others’ opinions, as highlighted by Anass. Rukiye: You start feeling strong, which makes you stand more firmly on your feet […] you become confident. When you are confident, it doesn't really matter what someone says to you, because you already have in your mind: ‘I am good enough […]’. You don't need anyone's confirmation. Selina: Yeah, well, sometimes in dancing, you get really tough feedback from trainers […] which can be quite hard to take. So, I think that if you then receive [criticism] from peers, it affects you less. I noticed in school that you just must stand your ground and not let it bother you. And that's easier if you're already used to it. Anass: [You learn] not to think about what others think of you, but to apply yourself to your own things. […] So, in the past, when I was insecure… when you care about what other people say, that means you stray from who you are and what you want.
In their descriptions of developmental outcomes, youth attributed significant importance to their coaches for facilitating these experiences, thereby elevating sport to a developmental journey beyond mere physical activity. They identified specific facilitative coaching practices as crucial to their development, which will be further detailed in the subsequent section.
Facilitative coaching practices
The young people who participated in this study were generally unable to specify which coaching values and behaviors led to particular developmental outcomes. Even in instances where coaching values and behaviors appear conceptually related to developmental outcomes, such as authoritative coaching and disciplined behavior among youth, they did not make this connection themselves. More broadly, they perceived coaching values and behaviors as contributing to the creation of a pedagogical climate that fosters their connection with the sport or club, thereby encouraging participation and subsequent development. These facilitative coaching practices were identified as caring relationships, authority, and autonomy. The following sections discuss the contextual nature of these mechanisms, elucidating their interdependence and contrasting characteristics.
Youth participants emphasized the importance of a caring relationship with their sports coach as a crucial element for their development. They characterized this relationship as one where the coach “cares about youths’ interests” and acts as a mentor, extending beyond sport-related issues, as exemplified by Chante. Chante: A good coach, for me, is someone who […] who notices your struggles, such as if you see that you have performance anxiety […] I personally really find it important that my trainer was also, besides working on the track, talking to me about how school was going or about other personal matters.
The young people provided various examples of relevant behavior, including engaging in individual conversations about personal matters and involving peers and parents for support when necessary, as illustrated by Rukiye. Rukiye: Our trainer is very open with us and whenever someone is feeling down, he says, ‘Hey, what's up?’ And then he tells us, ‘Cheer them up.’ He's involved in building personal bonds. […] It's really like, ‘How was your day?’ ‘And how is school?’ […] He is genuinely involved with us. Even if things weren't going well at school, I think he could do something about it because he is involved with us. I think he might even reach out to my parents to understand what's going on and all that. See if he can help.
Youth engaged in performance-oriented sports reported that it is important for coaches to understand and acknowledge how their performance is linked to their overall wellbeing and stability. They also emphasize the value of having opportunities to discuss their wellbeing “in the locker room-s,” referring to moments of personal contact beyond regular training sessions.
Regardless of sporting level, youth from low socioeconomic backgrounds were particularly explicit about the significance of caring relationships with their coach as an essential factor for development through sport. Often speaking on behalf of other youth (e.g. “for many youth…”), they implicitly conveyed why having a caring relationship with coaches is crucial. In addition to seeking a role model and confidant, they frequently highlighted the importance of coaches who understand their world, both in terms of personal struggles and broader social realities. This is particularly evident in Salahedinne's account: Salahedinne: Most young people here are into boxing because they have issues that, let's say, they need to channel their anger through… […] And if you have a coach or a trainer whom you feel comfortable with and is essentially a confidant, who has experience in our world, you know? That makes the difference.
Salahedinne's statement highlights that, beyond being trusted mentors, coaches who share or understand the lived experiences of youth play a crucial role in fostering trust and connection. For youth from low socioeconomic backgrounds, this familiarity is particularly valuable, as it enables coaches to relate to their challenges and provide support that feels authentic and relevant.
Within the broader theme of caring relationships—especially among youth from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, recognition of authority is an important aspect. Youth characterize this as the coach's ability to effectively direct behavior, maintain order, and instill discipline. They explain that this is enacted through a coaching style they describe as strict, allowing little input from participants, and demanding obedience to the coach's authority. Mika: Bad coaches [are coaches] who listen too much, [like] listening too much to the kind of people who whine. ‘Oh no, I don't want to do this,’ and then they respond like, ‘Okay, fine.’ Yeah, you just shouldn't listen like that. You should just have your own plan and stick to it, being the boss.
However, youth emphasized that they only accept or desire authority from their coaches when it is accompanied by qualities such as sporting expertise and the potential for success. Additional criteria included soft skills and didactic qualities, such as a sense of humor, authenticity, and being constructive. Although respondents explicitly mentioned a sense of humor, authenticity was described in terms such as “being real” and “being himself,” along with broader explanations referring to the coach's ability to connect on a personal level without pretense. Similarly, being constructive was reported explicitly, but also in terms of “being positive” and providing supportive feedback and advice.
In this context, youth underscored the importance of not feeling pressured into conforming to stereotypical roles. For example, Rukiye recalled an experience with a previous coach who enforced a “savior and victim” dynamic. Youth also mentioned that while having a close relationship with their coach is beneficial, it should not be an end in itself. They stressed that a positive relationship can develop over time and should not be forced. Finally, youth reported that the previously described caring relationships with their coaches are contingent upon their recognition of the coach's authority as part of effective coaching. They acknowledged that this dynamic is complex and often contradictory, making it challenging for them to fully comprehend.
In contrast, autonomy was reported as an important value and behavioral attribute of sports coaches, particularly by youth from high socioeconomic backgrounds. They described autonomy as fostering independent thought and choice, being open to ideas, and engaging in democratic decision making. Relevant coaching behaviors include offering choices, making democratic decisions, and being adaptable to changes in plans and circumstances, as exemplified by Linda. Linda: I think that communication from the coach is important, especially when they recognize us as equals. And also listening to what is being said within the team. So, seeing all that, uh… as having a radar, picking things up.
In discussions about autonomy, youth also expressed views on freedom in sports practice, defining it as the ability and right to make personal choices on the field. They often connected this perspective to other areas of their lives, such as home and school, where they also experience autonomy and seek consistency across different contexts. Youth from higher socioeconomic backgrounds and educational levels, in particular, emphasized that their education demonstrates their capacity to manage freedom responsibly.
Discussion
This article examines the developmental experiences of youth sport participants across diverse environments, focusing on their developmental outcomes and related coaching values and behaviors. Accordingly, this discussion follows a structure in which each research finding is examined individually, followed by its theoretical implications. This approach allows for a direct engagement with the significance of each result while making clear connections to existing literature.
As noted in the introduction (e.g. Newman et al., 2021) and emphasized by Legg (2021), youth perceive sport as a significant influence in their lives. They view it as essential to a healthy lifestyle, a means of escaping academic and social pressures, and a platform for personal growth, particularly in building connection skills and character. This underscores how youth value sport for its intrinsic worth, viewing it as a vital aspect of life that extends beyond its instrumental function. This perspective aligns with theories suggesting that play, including sport, holds fundamental cultural value beyond practical benefits (Besio, 2017; Sutton-Smith, 2008). By providing an escape from stressors such as school and home, sport contributes to individuals’ overall wellbeing and life satisfaction. These findings bridge theoretical concepts with practical experiences, showing how the abstract notion of sport as a form of play is manifested and interpreted in real-world settings. This enhances our understanding of its role in human culture, revealing its significance beyond mere developmental functionality and making an important contribution to youth sport literature. Yet, youth also perceive the developmental functions of sport as highly impactful.
Through sports participation, youth develop social connection skills by expanding networks and learning to navigate real-life challenges, fostering a deeper understanding of social norms and dynamics, termed “social game insight.” These findings build on existing studies of youth sport and social development. The enhancement of networking and communication skills supports previous research on sport's role in fostering social competence and confidence (Hermens et al., 2015) and connection (Spaaij, 2012). Consistent with Pierce et al. (2018), our research underscores the transferability of life skills from sport to other life domains. It also extends Holt et al.'s (2017) model of transferable skills, demonstrating how sport experiences advance the ability to interpret and respond to social situations effectively, particularly for disadvantaged youth. Furthermore, our study shows that youth not only acquire foundational social skills but also develop a deeper, more sophisticated understanding of social interactions.
In this context, “social game insight” is a valuable theoretical contribution. It represents a nuanced understanding of social dynamics, extending beyond basic social skills. This insight, particularly valuable for disadvantaged youth, serves as a form of cultural capital, enhancing their ability to navigate diverse social contexts (Spaaij, 2012). The concept aligns with the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL) framework's “social awareness” (Anderson-Butcher et al., 2021), defined as the ability to recognize others’ beliefs, feelings, and cultures. However, our findings suggest that “social game insight” goes further, encompassing the ability to adapt to various social roles, personalities, and perspectives, and to “play along” in complex social environments. This aligns with positive youth development theories, which emphasize building assets and resources for underserved populations (Lerner and Hilliard, 2019). Ultimately, the development of “social game insight” not only enhances social competence but deepens youths’ ability to navigate complex social landscapes, making a substantial contribution to youth sport literature. These insights underscore the potential of sports as a tool for promoting social adaptability and competence, especially among underserved youth.
Youth also reported character development through sport, particularly in discipline, work ethic, resilience, and opinion independence. Discipline and work ethic are understood as adherence to standards such as punctuality, preparation, communication, and reliability, aligning with Anderson-Butcher's (2019) concept of “self-management”—the regulation of one's thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. However, in this study, youth expand upon this concept by perceiving discipline and work ethic as guiding principles that shape their approach to challenges and goals across various life domains, emphasizing their importance beyond sports to personal development and overall life success.
Additionally, youth reported developing resilience through participation in sports, describing it as the mental capacity to pursue goals despite adversity. This was particularly emphasized by youth from low socioeconomic backgrounds, who linked resilience to the ongoing social challenges they navigate daily. Their understanding of resilience aligns with theoretical definitions of adaptation to hardship and positive stress responses (Fergus and Zimmerman, 2005). However, their accounts also highlight a crucial tension: resilience can foster perseverance, but it is often a necessary response to structural barriers rather than a purely self-directed strength.
Research confirms that youth from low socioeconomic backgrounds face unique challenges, including limited access to quality education, exposure to violence, and systemic discrimination (Newman et al., 2021; Spaaij et al., 2016). Although resilience is frequently celebrated as a key trait for overcoming adversity, it is essential to recognize that for these youth, resilience often represents an adaptation to constrained opportunities rather than an empowered choice (Baillergeau and Duyvendak, 2017; Camiré et al., 2022). In this context, sport can provide a temporary space for personal growth and coping. However, an overemphasis on individual resilience risks obscuring the structural inequalities that necessitate such resilience in the first place (Spaaij et al., 2016; Whitley et al., 2017). This aligns with findings from Spruit et al. (2021), who emphasize that while sport can serve as a protective factor for socially vulnerable youth, the mechanisms through which resilience develops remain complex and context-dependent. Understanding these processes is crucial to ensuring that sport-based interventions do not unintentionally place the burden of overcoming adversity solely on the individual. Fostering resilience is important, but we caution against viewing it as a standalone “solution.” Instead, we advocate for a dual approach: supporting youth in developing resilience while also addressing the systemic challenges that necessitate it in the first place (Newman et al., 2021; Camiré et al., 2023). Ensuring access to safe, inclusive, and opportunity-rich sport environments is a crucial step toward creating conditions in which all youth have the chance to thrive (Aggerholm and Breivik, 2021).
Young people's accounts of how sport fosters resilience—by exposing them to challenges—align with Fergus and Zimmerman's (2005) challenge model, which posits that stress can enhance resilience by developing coping strategies. Recent studies confirm this, showing that setbacks in sport strengthen emotional regulation and adaptability (Newman et al., 2021). For example, youth in a sport-based program reported learning crucial coping skills through mistakes and adversity, which helped them manage challenges beyond sport. Similarly, high school athletes exhibit stronger self-regulation and social competence than nonathletes (Newman et al., 2021), and Williams and MacNamara (2023) found that engaging with challenging experiences in sport enhances problem-solving and emotional resilience. Beyond resilience, sport also fosters social adaptability. Team environments teach youth to navigate group dynamics and resolve conflicts, enhancing communication and teamwork (Newman et al., 2021). Even difficult experiences—such as making mistakes or managing interpersonal challenges—help develop skills that transfer to school and community settings. In this study, the youth extended this theory by framing stressful situations as opportunities to push themselves and sustain discipline through difficulties. This learned response aids them in overcoming obstacles in both sporting contexts and broader aspects of life. They also highlight the role of coaches in providing support during these challenges, thus facilitating the development of resilience.
The prominence of resilience development among youth from lower socioeconomic backgrounds suggests differences in aspirations across sporting environments. For underserved youth, the focus is on resilience to navigate challenging circumstances, whereas for more affluent youth, the emphasis is often on autonomy, less encumbered by social struggles. This aligns with Baillergeau and Duyvendak's (2017) discussion on how social positions and daily interactions shape aspirations. Our research extends their conclusions by showing how resilience and autonomy are shaped by sport experiences and are closely linked to perceptions of social structures. The developmental experiences of youth in sport were further shaped by contextual factors such as competition level and sport type. Highly competitive environments often reinforced discipline and resilience but also introduced pressures that shaped youth perceptions of success and failure. In contrast, recreational settings emphasized social connection and enjoyment, fostering a more relaxed approach to skill development. Sport type also influenced experiences, with individual sports often fostering self-regulation and autonomy, while team sports placed greater emphasis on communication and collective responsibility. These contextual distinctions suggest that youth sport experiences are not uniform but are deeply embedded in the structures and cultures of specific sporting environments. Furthermore, these findings challenge assumptions about stress in youth sport. Contrary to the belief that stress in youth sport is inherently harmful (Fraser-Thomas and Côté, 2009), our results suggest a more nuanced understanding. Consistent with White and Bennie's (2015) view that stress can foster resilience, the data indicate that, with appropriate support, placing athletes in challenging sports situations (e.g. simulating competition) can effectively promote resilience. This perspective provides a valuable counterpoint to prevailing concerns about stress in youth sport and suggests avenues for intentionally incorporating resilience-building strategies into sports programs.
The study's findings have significant implications for sports program design and coaching practices. Coaches and program developers should consider integrating manageable stressors into training, along with robust support systems, to promote resilience. This approach might involve gradually increasing challenge levels, encouraging reflection on setbacks, and ensuring access to mentorship. By doing so, sports programs can more effectively leverage their potential to build resilience, particularly for youth from disadvantaged backgrounds who may face additional challenges beyond sports. Regarding facilitative coaching practices, youth identify caring relationships, authority, and autonomy as key coaching values that contribute to their development. This finding is consistent with the established importance of caring relationships in youth sportyouth sport, as noted by Gano-Overway and Guivernau (2014), who advocate for safe, inclusive environments that prioritize wellbeing over performance. However, findings suggest that the effectiveness of these facilitative coaching practices varies depending on the sport environment. For example, youth from low socioeconomic backgrounds particularly value a caring relationship with their coach, viewing the coach as a role model, mentor, and confidant who understands their specific life challenges. Additionally, youth from lower socioeconomic backgrounds appreciate authoritative coaching when it is paired with genuine care, authenticity, and support. In contrast, youth from more privileged environments emphasize autonomy and democratic decision making, reflecting the social values they encounter in other areas of their lives, such as at home and school. They value the consistency between these environments and sports, where similar principles of autonomy and shared decision-making are upheld. These youth also assert that they are well-suited to be granted autonomy, as they possess the capacity to manage it effectively.
Overall, the experiences and perceptions of youth highlight the concept of youth sport as segmented environments, shaped by both social backgrounds and sporting contexts (Aggerholm and Breivik, 2021; Whitley et al., 2017). This is consistent with research showing that children from different social classes develop personal preferences that influence their sports behaviors (Stuij, 2015). As noted by Nelson et al. (2022), socioeconomic backgrounds play a significant role in shaping these perceptions, as the social and institutional environments in which youth are raised influence their expectations and experiences in sport, particularly regarding autonomy, governance, and coaching practices. Understanding the local community, social dynamics, and the values attached to sports participation is therefore crucial (Aggerholm and Breivik, 2021). This research specifically calls for tailored coach education programs, particularly in underserved communities, as previously emphasized (Newman et al., 2021; Whitley et al., 2017). These tailored programs are necessary because coaches in different socioeconomic contexts may need to address unique challenges and expectations specific to their athletes’ backgrounds. Thus, this study contributes to existing theories by demonstrating how socioeconomic contexts shape participants’ sports experiences, underscoring the importance of contextually informed coaching practices that take into account the specific needs and circumstances of the communities they serve.
Conclusion
The present advances our fundamental knowledge of how youth perceive and experience developmental processes within various sporting contexts, with a particular emphasis on the contextual interplay between facilitative coaching practices, perceived developmental outcomes, and their associated needs. As such, this research offers a pivotal contribution to the field, suggesting that the effectiveness of sports coaching and developmental outcomes for youth are deeply intertwined with the socioeconomic landscapes in which these activities occur. By addressing the calls for a more nuanced, contextualized understanding of youth sport, as underscored in the works of Evans et al. (2017), Newman et al. (2021), and Haudenhuyse et al. (2020), this study adds critical depth to the often-oversimplified narrative of sport's role in youth development, as noted by Coalter (2017). Specifically, it highlights how pedagogical outcomes of youth sport come about by contingent facilitative coaching practices, underscoring the necessity for these relationships to be contextually comprehended, integrated, and evaluated, as argued by Debognies et al. (2019). Consequently, the findings from this study not only advance the scholarship on the experienced dynamics of youth sport from the youths’ perspectives but also lay the groundwork for integrating theoretical insights from youth sport research into specific contexts and subjecting them to critical scrutiny.
This research also has practical implications. In conjunction with findings from previous research on youth sport coaches’ experiences and pedagogical orientations (Riffi Acharki et al., 2023), it highlights the importance of further developing contextually relevant youth sport programming and coach education. Such development aims to maximize developmental outcomes for youth, aligning with the advocacy of scholars (Bean et al., 2021; Newman et al., 2021). Specifically, the findings underscore the importance of addressing youths’ contextual needs, understandings, and perceptions in developing youth sport programming and coaching education. Moreover, this research could aid in the further development of tailored knowledge and skill frameworks that go beyond the conventional, as suggested by Christensen and Rubin (2022). For example, the current policy in the Netherlands, which makes a large-scale effort to stimulate pedagogical climates at youth sport clubs, could be enhanced by integrating contextual educational programming for coaches. This would enable them to critically integrate and evaluate pedagogical insights within specific contexts. Herein, we advocate for the co-creation of this programming with those directly involved in specific contexts, rather than adopting a generic, top-down approach.
Although this study marks a significant step toward identifying contextual relationships between youth sport outcomes and facilitative coaching practices, further expansion and specification of these insights are warranted. The roles of factors such as sport type, level, and gender, as well as contextual factors beyond the sport club context, require additional exploration. Moreover, concerning the transfer of skills in youth sport, a deeper understanding of the underlying mechanisms is necessitated, as suggested by Legg (2021) and Newman and Anderson-Butcher (2021). In light of these considerations, we advocate for the incorporation of quantitative research methods to enable a more systematic and precise identification of contexts, mechanisms, outcomes, and their interrelations. This approach can enhance our understanding of how and why youth sport can stimulate development through sport. Additionally, our comprehension of the processes through which development in sport occurs remains incomplete. Significant steps can be made to enhance our understanding of how experiences in youth sport transform into outcomes and are transferred to the life worlds of youths. Consequently, we call for research that not only identifies factors but also elucidates how these factors operate within developmental processes for youth. Finally, this research illuminates the complex tapestry of youth sport experiences, underscoring sport's capacity to catalyze development while also highlighting the need to comprehend and evolve our knowledge and practices around the diverse landscapes of youth experiences for the betterment of future generations.
Footnotes
Declaration of conflicting interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (grant number 023.010.053).
Data availability
The de-identified data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to their containing information that could compromise the privacy of research respondents.
