West Africa’s trajectory to democratisation and sustained socio-economic development has, since the end of the Cold War, been hamstrung by various forms of violence ranging from bloody civil wars, sectarian conflicts, coup d’états and secessionist insurgency. While some of these conflicts have to an extent been managed through the various interventions of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the region is still stifled by emerging security threats, especially as new waves of terrorism threaten the legitimacy and territorial integrity of some member states, with more obvious and painful evidence in Nigeria and Mali. Against this background, this article will explore the terrorist challenges in Nigeria and Mali in order to establish an identifiable trend and their regional linkages with other Al-Qaeda elements in the Sahel and the Maghreb. The article assesses the capacity of a regional response and argues for more security cooperation among West African governments through the coordination of ECOWAS and the long-term support of the African Union and the international community.
AbdullahI.RashidI2004‘Rebel Movements’, in AdebajoA.RashidI. (eds). West Africa’s Security Challenges: Building Peace in a Troubled Region, London: Lynn Rienner Publishers, pp 169–194.
2.
AdebajoA.2004‘Pax West Africana? Regional Security Mechanisms’, in AdebajoA.RashidI. (eds). West Africa’s Security Challenges: Building Peace in a Troubled Region, London: Lynn Rienner Publishers, pp 291–318.
3.
AdedejiA.2004‘ECOWAS: A Retrospective Journey’, in AdebajoA.RashidI. (eds). West Africa’s Security Challenges: Building Peace in a Troubled Region, London: Lynn Rienner Publishers, pp 21–50.
ArielA.2013‘Crisis in Mali: Congressional Research Service’, CRS Report For Congress Prepared For Members And Committees Of Congress, pp 1–18.
6.
BamfoN.2013‘The Political and Security Challenges Facing “ECOWAS” in the Twenty-first Century: Testing the Limits of an Organization’s Reputation’, International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, vol 3, no 3: 12–23.
7.
BlythF.2013‘Is the French Military The Best Counterterrorism Response in Mali?’ (http://www.theglobalobservatory.org/analysis/498-is-the-french-military-the-best-counterterrorism-response-in-mali.html — accessed on 2 July 2013).
8.
CookD.2013‘Boko Haram: Reversals and Retrenchement’, Combating Terrorism Centre (http://www.ctc.usma.edu/posts/boko-haram-reversals-and-retrenchment — accessed on 6 May 2013).
9.
DaigneE.M.2012‘Strategic Implications of Emerging Threats to West African Countries.’ Published Masters’ Thesis. US War Army College. (http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=ADA561474 — accessed on 3 April 2013).
10.
FalolaT.2002Key Events in African History: A Reference Guide. London: Greenwood Press.
11.
ForestJ.F.2012‘Confronting the Terrorism of Boko Haram in Nigeria’, JSOU Report, no 2: 1–178.
12.
GourleyS.M.2012‘Linkages between Boko Haram and Al-Qaeda: A Potential Deadly Synergy’, Global Security Studies, vol 3: 1–14.
13.
HaackeJ.WilliamsP.D.2008‘Transnational Challenges’, Security, Cultures and Regional Organizations, End of Award Report, RES 223-25-0072, Swindon: ESRC.
14.
HinshawD.2013‘Timbuktu Terrorist Site Shows Terrorist Reach.’The Wall Street Journal. (http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424127887323926104578278030474477210.html — accessed on 12 February 2013).
15.
HutchfulE.2007‘Economic Community of West African States Counterterrorism Efforts’, in SageA. Le (ed.). African Counterterrorism Cooperation: Assessing Regional and Subregional Initiatives, Washington, D.C.: Potomac Books, Inc, pp 113–125.
16.
International Crisis Group2012‘Mali: The Need for a Determined and Coordinated International Action, African Briefing No 90’ (http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/regions/africa/west-africa/mali/b090-mali-the-need-for-determined-and-coordinated-international-action.aspx — accessed on 5 January 2013).
17.
KoepfT.2013‘Terrorist Attacks in Niger: Not Another Mali. European Union Institute for Security Studies.’ (http://www.iss.europa.eu/uploads/media/Alert_Niger.pdf — accessed on 26 July 2013).
18.
LacherW.2012‘Organized Crime and Conflict in the Sahel–Sahara Region, Carnegie Papers’, Carnegie Endowment Maplecroft. ‘Insurrections, Kidnappings and Instability: Security Dynamics in the Sahara/Sahel in the Wake of the Libyan Uprising’Maplecroft, (http://carnegieendowment.org/files/sahel_sahara.pdf — accessed on 4 March 2013).
19.
LacherW.TullD.M.2013Mali: Beyond Counterterrorism, German Institute for International and Security Affairs, SWP Comments7: 1–7.
20.
LarémontR.R.2011‘Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb: Terrorism and Counterterrorism in the Sahel’, African Security, vol 4, no 4: 42–268.
21.
LeSage, A2007‘Terrorism Threat and Vulnerabilities in Africa,’ in SageA. Le (ed.). African Counterterrorism Cooperation: Assessing Regional and Subregional Initiatives, Washington, D.C: Potomac Books, pp 1–39.
22.
LymanP.N.MorrisionJ.F.2004‘The Terrorist Threat in Africa’, Foreign Affairs, no 83: 75–86.
23.
MINUSMA2013‘MINUSMA: United Nations Stabilizing Mission in Mali’ (http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/minusma/background.shtml — accessed on 4 August 2013).
24.
OruwariY.2005‘Taking Regionalism a Step Further: The Need to Involve the Household in the Development of the West African Region,’ in FawoleA.UkejeC. (eds). The Crisis of the State and Regionalism in West Africa: Identity, Citizenship, and Conflict, Dakar: CODESRIA, pp 161–174.
25.
OshisadaV.2012‘Boko Haram is no Problem’The Guardian26March2012. (http://www.ngrguardiannews.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=81230:oshisada-boko-haram-is-no-problem&catid=38:columnists&Itemid=615 – accessed on 20 November 2013).
26.
PhamJ.P.2012‘Boko Haram’s Evolving Threat’, Africa Security Brief no. 20: 1–7.
27.
RaoS.2013Conflict and Stabilisation in Mali and the Sahel Region (GSDRC Helpdesk Research Report)Birmingham, UK: Governance and Social Development Resource Centre, University of Birmingham.
28.
RashidI.2004‘West Africa’s Post-Cold War Security Challenges,’ in AdebajoA.RashidI. (eds). West Africa’s Security Challenges: Building Peace in a Troubled Region, London: Lynn Rienner Publishers, pp 383–395.
29.
RenardT.2010‘Terrorism and Other Transnational Threats in the Sahel: What Role for the EU?’ Center on Global Counterterrorism Cooperation. Policy Brief, 1–8. (http://www.Globalct.org – accessed on 20 November 2013).
30.
Security Council Report2012‘Threats to Peace and Security in West African and the Sahel Region.’ (http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/monthly-forecast/2012-02/lookup_c_glKWLeMTIsG_b_7966245.php — accessed on 11 November 2012).
31.
SeseyA.2005‘Can ECOWAS Re-invent the Nationalist Dream in West Africa? Reflections on the Protocol on Democracy and Good Governance,’ in FawoleA.UkejeC. (eds). The Crisis of the State and Regionalism in West Africa: Identity, Citizenship, and Conflict, Dakar: CODESRIA, pp 191–211.
32.
SouaréI.K.2010‘A Critical Assessment of Security Challenges in West Africa’Institute for Security Studies Situation Report, (http://www.humansecuritygateway.com/documents/ISS_ACriticalAssessmentOfSecurityChallengesInWestAfrica.pdf — accessed on 27 November 2012).
33.
TajeM.2010‘Vulnerabilities and Factors of Insecurities in the Sahel: West African Challenges’ (http://www.oecd.org/swac/publications/45830109.pdf — accessed on 27 November 2012).
34.
TanchumM.2012‘Al-Qa’ida’s West African Advance: Nigeria’s Boko Haram, Mali’s Touareg, and the Spread of Salafi Jihadism’, Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs, vol 6, no 2: 75–90.
35.
The Economist. 2013‘Jihad in Africa: The Danger in the Desert’, (http://www.economist.com/news/briefing/21570720-terrorism-algeria-and-war-mali-demonstrate-increasing-reach-islamist-extremism — accessed on 5 August 2013).
36.
This Day Live. 2013‘Cameroon: Boko Haram have released Kidnapped French Family’ (http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/cameroon-boko-haram-have-released-kidnapped-french-family/145385/ — accessed on 5 August 2013).
37.
ThornberryW.LevyJ.2011‘Al Qaeda in the Islamic Machreb: AQIM Futures Project’, Case Study Series no 4: 1–11. (http://csis.org/files/publication/110901_Thornberry_AQIM_WEB.pdf — accessed on 20 November 2013).
38.
UkejeC.2005‘From Economic Cooperation to Collective Security: ECOWAS and the Changing Imperatives of Sub-Regionalism in West Africa,’ in FawoleA.UkejeC. (eds). The Crisis of the State and Regionalism in West Africa: Identity, Citizenship, and Conflict, Dakar: CODESRIA, pp 141–160.
39.
United Nations Office of the Special Adviser on Africa. 2010‘Africa and International Counterterrorism Imperatives,’ (http://www.un.org/africa/osaa/reports/new-reports/OSAA-TerrorismPaper-12Nov2010.pdf — accessed on May 5 2013).
40.
UzodikeU.O.MaiangwaB.2012‘Boko Haram Terrorism in Nigeria: Causal Factors and Central Problematic.’African Renaissance, vol 9, no 1: 91–118.
41.
Zenn-1J.2012‘Boko Haram’s Dangerous Expansion into Northwest Nigeria’ (http://www.ctc.usma.edu/posts/boko-harams-dangerous-expansion-into-northwest-nigeria — accessed on 30 October 2012).
42.
Zenn-2J.2012‘Boko Haram’s Growing Presence in Niger’, Terrorism Monitor, vol 10, no 10: 4–5.
43.
ZennJ.2013‘Boko Haram’s International Connections’, CTC Sentinental, no 6: 7–12. (www.ctc.usma.edu/posts/boko-harams—international-connections — accessed on 20 November 2013).
44.
Zouhon-BiS.G.NielsonL.2007‘The Economic Community of West African States: Fiscal Revenue Implications of the Prospective Economic Partnership Agreement with the European Union’, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 4266. (http://elibrary.worldbank.org/docserver/download/4266.pdf?expires=1357463610&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=94B65BB59466D1FCDCF7E6ED96CB6D64 — accessed on 6 January 2013).
