This paper examines the portrayal of characters that are deaf in 29 English novels written over 300 years by mainstream authors for a largely hearing readership. Their attributes are examined with particular reference to the mode of communication, education, medical intervention and issues of identity, and as to how far these portrayals resonate with the experience of persons with hearing loss by comparison to contemporary deaf narratives. The reasons why hearing authors include such representations are considered and two categories of iconic character are identified – ‘Goldilocks’ and ‘Granny’, discussing how far these portrayals truly inform about deafness or reflect the underlying attitudes of the author and the society they represent.
The ‘Action on hearing loss’ convention for describing deafness (formerly Royal National Institute for the Deaf) has been followed. The website includes ‘People who are deaf’ as a general description for all degrees of hearing loss and ‘The Deaf community’ for people whose first or preferred language is British Sign Language (BSL).
2.
DefoeD. The history of the life and adventures of Mr. Duncan Campbell, 1720. London: JM Dent & Co, 1895.
3.
Unlike most surveys, this one excludes Scott’s Peveril of the Peak. Although often quoted, the character feigns’ deafness’ and cannot be considered an intentional representation of a person with hearing loss by the author.
4.
Gallaudet University for the Deaf, located in Washington DC, is the only institution of its type in the world, and publishes many books and resources for people with hearing loss.
5.
BergmanELiterature, fictional characters. In: Van CleveJV (ed). Gallaudet encyclopedia of deaf people and deafness1987; Vol. 2, New York: McGraw Hill, pp. 172–172.
6.
PanaraRF. Deaf characters in fiction and drama. Deaf American1972; 24: 3–8.
7.
GuireO. Deaf characters in literature. The Silent Worker1961; 13: 3–6.
8.
TaylorGM. Deaf characters in short stories. Deaf American1974; 26: 6–8.
9.
MillerJ. The rustle of a star. An annotated bibliography of deaf characters in fiction. Library Trends1992; 41: 42–60.
10.
Barnes FG. The deaf in literature. Teacher of the Deaf 1903; 1: 42–45.
11.
CollinsW. Hide and seek, 1854; London: Sampson Low, Son & Co, 1861.
12.
Collins W. (op.cit. ref. 8) note to Chapter VII.
13.
Dickens C. Dr Marigold. In: Christmas stories, vol. II. 1863. London: Chapman & Hall, 1911.
14.
The convention has been followed of using ‘deaf’ to describe the condition of, and people with, a hearing loss who primarily use speech and identify with the hearing community; and ‘Deaf’ for people who primarily communicate with and use signing, and identify with a non-hearing BSL based community and culture. It should be noted, however, that many of the novels quoted were written before the emergence of a Deaf identity or subculture, using ‘deaf’ as a statement of fact rather than of identity.
15.
ReeJ. I see a voice. A philosophical history of language, deafness and the senses, London: Harper Collins, 1999, pp. 23–25.
16.
AustenJ. Emma, 1815; London: Penguin Books, 1996.
17.
MilesD. British sign language, London: BBC Books, 1988, pp. 13–13.
18.
KittoJJ. The lost senses. Part I. Deafness. The land of silence. Edinburgh Review1855; 102: 124–125.
19.
Defoe D. (op.cit. ref. 1) pp.21-23.
20.
Defoe D. (op.cit. ref. 1).
21.
MirzoeffN. The silent mind: learning for deafness. History Today1992; 42: 19–25.
22.
BrienD. Dictionary of British sign language/English, London: Faber and Faber, 1992.
23.
Fletcher RevW. The deaf and dumb boy, London: John W. Parker, 1837, pp. 124–126.
24.
Ree J. (op.cit. ref. 11) p.219.
25.
GitterE. The imprisoned guest, New York: Picador, 2001, pp. 108, 120–125, 138.
26.
Panara RF. (op.cit. ref. 3) p.4.
27.
Reynolds MrsF. In silence, London: Hurst & Blackett, 1906.
28.
DenmanA. A silent handicap, London: Edward Arnold & Co, 1927.
JosephM. The listening silence, London: Hutchinson, 1983.
31.
Panara R. (op.cit. ref. 3) p.4.
32.
GeorgeE. For the sake of Elena, London: Bantam Press, 1992.
33.
Mirzoeff N. (op.cit. ref, 17) 19-25.
34.
LewisH. The day is ours, London: Jarrolds, 1973.
35.
Lady Irene Ewing ran a residential school for deaf infants between the World Wars. Her husband, Sir Alexander Ewing, was Professor of Audiology and Education of the Deaf at Manchester University. They were pioneers in teaching oral communication to deaf children.
36.
Collins W. (op.cit. ref. 8) p.73.
37.
Fletcher Rev W. (op.cit. ref. 19) p.123.
38.
Reynolds Mrs F. (op.cit. ref. 23) p.110.
39.
Martin A. (aka John Creasey). Nest-egg for the Baron. London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1954.
40.
ZazovePCommentary on Jones L, Bunton R, Wounded or warrior? Stories of being or becoming deaf. In: HurwitzBGreenhalghTSkultansV (eds). Narrative research in health and illness, Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd, 2002, pp. 203–203.
41.
Dickens C. (op.cit. ref. 10) (Dr Marigold 1863) pp. 125–126.
42.
Deman Denman A. (op.cit. ref. 24) p.222.
43.
George E. (op.cit. ref. 28) pp.73–74.
44.
Lodge D. (op.cit. ref. 25) pp.160,126.
45.
JonesLBuntonRWounded or warrior? Stories of being or becoming deaf. In: HurwitzBGreenhalghTSkultansV (eds). Narrative research in health and illness, Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd, 2002, pp. 189–189.
46.
Jones L and Bunton R. (op.cit. ref. 40) p.200.
47.
LaddP. Understanding deaf culture. In search of deafhood, Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters Ltd, 2003, pp. 230–230.
48.
DavisLJ. Deafness and insight: the deafened moment as a critical modality. College English1995; 57: 881–882.
49.
FinkelsteinV“We” are not disabled, “You” are. In: GregorySHartleyGM (eds). Constructing deafness, London: Pinter, 1991, pp. 265–265.
50.
ParrattDTippingBThe state, social work and deafness. In: GregorySHartleyGM (eds). Constructing deafness, London: Pinter, 1991, pp. 249–249.
51.
Zazove P. (op.cit. ref. 35) p.203.
52.
Jones L and Bunton R. (op.cit. ref. 40) p.189.
53.
Mirzoeff N. (op.cit. ref. 18) p.2.
54.
Barnes FG. (op.cit. ref. 7) p.42.
55.
Panara RF. (op.cit. ref. 3) p.3-8.
56.
Panara RF. (op.cit. ref. 3) p.3-8.
57.
Bergman E. (op.cit. ref. 2) p.172.
58.
Barnes FG. (op.cit. ref. 7) pp.42–45.
59.
DickensC. The mystery of Edwin Drood / Master Humphrey’s clock, 1840. London: Chapman & Hall Ltd, 1911.
60.
DavisRL. A deaf character in Charles Dickens’ Master Humphrey’s clock. The Silent Worker1963; 15: 11–11.
61.
YearsleyM. Deafness in literature. The Lancet1925; i: 746–747.
62.
Anonymous. Dr Marigold. The Silent Worker 1890;3:1.
63.
Panara RF. (op.cit. ref. 3) p.4.
64.
Bergman E. (op.cit. ref. 2) p.172.
65.
Kitto JJ. (op.cit. ref. 14) p.117.
66.
DickensC. The posthumous papers of the Pickwick Club, 1836; London: Chapman & Hall Ltd, 1910, pp. 455–455.
67.
Compton-BurnettI. Manservant and maidservant, London: Victor Gollancz, 1947, pp. 45–45.
