Mozart's Terminal Illness: Unravelling the Clinical Evidence

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Nissen GN (op. cit. ref. 1): 572; Deutsch OE (op. cit. ref. 1): 461

Bynum WF Porter R. Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine (2 vols). London: Routledge, 1993: vol. II, pp. 806–18

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Treves R. Mozart's death. Ann Rheumatol 1991; 30: 963–4; Wondrák E. Mozarts Gesundheit und das Geheimnis seines Todes. In: Mozart und Olmütz. Olmütz: Palacky-Universität in Olmütz, 1992: 37–49

Greither A. Mozart und die Ärtzte, seine Krankheiten und sein Tod. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 1956; 81: 165–9; Kerner D. Mozart als Patient. Zeitschrift für Ärztliche Fortbildung 1957; 51: 21–5; Clein GP . Mozart. A study in renal pathology. King's College Hospital Gazette 1959; 37: 37–45; Scarlett EP . The illnesses and death of Mozart. Arch Intern Med. 1964; 114: 311–16; Shapiro S. Medical history of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Eye, Ear, Nose and Throat Monthly 1968; 47: 17–20; Carp L. Mozart, his tragic life and controversial death. Bull New York Acad Med. 1970; 46: 267–80; Bär C. Mozart. Krankheit — Tod — Bergräbnis (2nd edn). Basel: Bärenreiter, 1972: 40; Hutchings A. Mozart. The Man. The Musician. London: Thames and Hudson, 1976: 88; Keys I. Mozart His Music and His Life. New York: Holmes and Meier, 1980: 232; Böhme G. Medizinische Porträts berühmter Komponisten. Frankfurt am Mein: S Fischer Verlag, 1981: 24; Davies PJ . Mozart in Person. His Character and Health. New York: Greenwood Press, 1989: 62; Autexier PA . Mozart. Paris: Champion, 1987: 88; Banerjee AK . The death of Mozart. J R Soc Med. 1990; 83: 414; Bastian T. Mozarts Tod. Starb Mozart wegen Laxatierenabusus? Dtsch Apotheker Zeitung 1990; 130: 2777–80; Franken FH . Krankheit und Tod Mozarts. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 1991; 116: 870–3; Wheater M. Mozart's last illness — a medical diagnosis. J R Soc Med. 1990; 83: 586–8; Werner AJ . Mozart und die Medizin. In: Czobaldi P , Ed. Wolfgang Amadeus. Simma Summorum. Das Phänomen Mozart. Vienna: Paul Neff Verlag, 1990: 101–18; Sterpellone L. Mozart tra medici e medicine. Milan: Edizione Paoline, 1991; Drake ME . Mozart's chronic subdural hematoma. Neurology 1993; 43: 2400–3; MacLeod AJ . Mozart and renal disease in the eighteenth century. Dalhouise Review 1993; 73: 230–3; Keynes M. The personality and illnesses of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. J Med Biog 1994; 2: 217–32; Duda G. W. A Mozart “Den Göttern gegeben” Ein “Bauopfertod”. Pahl: Verlag Hohe Warte GmbH, 1994: 150

Wondrák E (op. cit. ref. 5):44

Clein GP (op. cit. ref. 6); Davies PJ (op. cit. ref. 6):163; Wheater M (op. cit. ref. 6):586; Wondrák E (op. cit. ref. 5):44; Anderson RN . Mozart's death — the case for complications of rheumatic heart disease. Dalhousie Review 1993; 73: 235–40; Drake ME (op. cit. ref. 6):2400; Saffle M Saffle JR . Medical histories of prominent composers: recent research and discoveries. Acta Musicologica 1993; 65: 77–101; Duda G (op. cit. ref. 6):15; Keynes M (op. cit. ref. 6):222; Outlaw KK O'Leary JP . Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart 1756–1791. A mysterious death. Am Surg 1995; 61: 1025–7

Carp L (op. cit. ref. 6); Winter M. Kriminalfall. Vita 1990; 1: 78–83; O'Shea J. Music and Medicine. Medical Profiles of Great Composers. London: J M Dent & Sons, 1990: 31; Kubba AK Young M. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: a case report. J R Coll of Surg 1996; 41: 44–7

Wondrák E (op. cit. ref. 5):44

Davies PJ (op. cit. ref. 6):163–4; Landon RHC. Mozart and Vienna. London: Thames and Hudson, 1991: 7

Bär C (op. cit. ref. 6):39; Davies PJ (op. cit. ref. 6):163; Wheater M (op. cit. ref. 6):587; Sakula A. The death of Mozart: a bicentenary medical review. Trans Med Soc Lond 1990–1; 107: 21–6; Wondrák E (op. cit. ref. 5):45; Neumayr A. Musik & Medizin. Am Beispiel des Wiener Klassik. Vienna: J & V Edition, 1992; Drake ME (op. cit. ref. 6):2400; Kubba AK Young M (op. cit. ref. 9):45

Shapiro S (op. cit. ref. 6):20; Davies PJ (op. cit. ref. 6):163; Outlaw KK (op. cit. ref. 8):1026

Wilder V. Mozart. History of his Life as Man and Artist According to Authentic Sources (2 vols). London: William Reeves, 1907: vol. II, p. 470; Duda G (op. cit. ref. 6):156

Clein GP (op. cit. ref. 6); Sakula A (op. cit. ref. 12); Anderson RN (op. cit. ref. 8):237

Clein GP (op. cit. ref. 6); Davies PJ (op. cit. ref. 6):62; Werner AJ (op. cit. ref. 6):112; O'Shea J (op. cit. ref. 9):30; Keynes M (op. cit. ref. 6):222; Kubba AK, Young M (op. cit. ref. 9):45

Wilder V (op. cit. ref. 14):vol. I, p. 365; Barraud J. A quelle maladie a succombé Mozart? La Chronique Medicale 1905; 12:737–44; Werner AJ (op. cit. ref. 6):112–13; Wondrák E (op. cit. ref. 5):45; O'Shea J (op. cit. ref. 9):30; Keynes M (op. cit. ref. 6):222

Wondrák E (op. cit. ref. 5):44; Abbott EC. The Mozart family physicians and their treatment. Dalhousie Review 1993; 73: 224–9

Wondrák E (op. cit. ref. 5):46

Clein GP (op. cit. ref. 6); Die A. Greither Todeskrankheit Mozarts als Nachtrag zu seinem 175. Todestag. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 1967; 92: 723–6; Carp L (op. cit. ref. 6); Bastian T (op. cit. ref. 6)

Bär C (op. cit. ref. 6):40; Jenkins JS. The medical history and death of Mozart. J R Coll Physicians 1991; 25: 351–3; Davies PJ (op. cit. ref. 6):163; O'Shea J (op. cit. ref. 9):31; Sakula A (op. cit. ref. 12):22; Drake ME (op. cit. ref. 6):2400; Anderson RN (op. cit. ref. 8):237; Mozarts W. Boissevain Doodoorzaak. In: Passchier J Peddemors A , Eds. Pro Mozart aspecten van zijn leven en werk. Kampen: Kok Lyra Uitgeverij, 1994: 62–9; Keynes M (op. cit. ref. 6):222; Outlaw KK (op. cit. ref. 8):1026

Keynes M (op. cit. ref. 6):222

Soothill JF . Mozart's illness and death. J R Soc Med. 1964; 77: 436

Sakula A (op. cit. ref. 12):22; Sterpellone L (op. cit. ref. 6)

Davies PJ (op. cit. ref. 6):165, 179; Banerjee AK (op. cit. ref. 6); Drake ME (op. cit. ref. 6); Outlaw KK (op. cit. ref. 8):1026

Davies PJ (op. cit. ref. 6):164; Sakula A (op. cit. ref. 12):24; Werner AJ (op. cit. ref. 6):116–17; Banerjee AK (op. cit. ref. 6); Landon RHC . 1791 Mozart's Last Year. London: Thames and Hudson, 1989: 89 179; Landon RHC (op. cit. ref. 11):6; Drake ME (op. cit. ref. 6); Anderson RN (op. cit. ref. 8):239

Jahn O. Life of Mozart. London: Ewer & Co., 1882: vol. III, p. 354; Davies PJ (op. cit. ref. 17):777; Davies PJ (op. cit. ref. 6):163, 164, 197, 198; Drake ME (op. cit. ref. 6); Outlaw KK (op. cit. ref. 8):1026

Davies PJ (op. cit. ref. 6):204; Drake ME (op. cit. ref. 6); Anderson RN (op. cit. ref. 8):237

Nissen GN (op. cit. ref. 1):575; Genée R. Sachliche und ergänzende Anmerkungen zu dem “Tod eines Unsterblichen”. Mitteilungen für die Mozart-Gemeinde in Berlin 1911; 32: 309–21; Schurig A (op. cit. ref. 1):374; Treves R (op. cit. ref. 4):963

Nissen GN (op. cit. ref. 1):572

Novello V Novello M. A Mozart Pilgrimage. Being the Travel Diaries of Vincent and Mary Novello in the Year 1829 ( Hughes R , Ed.). London: Eulengburg Books, 1955: 215; Kerner D. Eine unnbekannte Erwiderung auf Carpanis Verteidung Salieris. Acta Mozartiana 1967; 14: 31–3. Nissen's comment comes from a copy of the second 1808 edition of Mozart's biography by Niemetschek, which is at the Library of the Salzburg Mozarteum — Duda G (op. cit. ref. 6):139

Deutsch OE (op. cit. ref. 1):380, 428, 432; Eisen C (op. cit. ref. 1):72

Ludewig R. Meinungsstreit über die Ursache des Todes von W A Mozart. Annales Universitatis Saraviensis Medicinae. Supplement 8, 1992. Mozart's alleged bronze death mask, according to Duda, shows evidence of facial swelling, i.e. oedema of eyelids, forehead, and cheeks — Duda G. Die Echtheitsstreit um Mozarts Totenmaske. Pähl: Franz von Beburg Verlag, 1985: 36–40. However, since one of the arguments for its authenticity assumes the presence of facial oedema, the death mask cannot be used as a sign of facial oedema if we want to avoid circularity

Bär C (op. cit. ref. 6):39; Kerner D (op. cit. ref. 31):32; Holmes D (op. cit. ref. 1):347. There are two versions of Sophie's explanation: either her own letter “vermög der Geschwulst” (“on account of the swelling”) – Deutsch OE. Mozart; die Dokumente seines Leben. Kassel: Bärenreiter, 1961:450 – or Sophie quoted by Nissen “wegen der Geschwulst” (because of) – Nissen GN (op. cit. ref. 1):573

Deutsch OE (op. cit. ref. 1):565; Stafford W. The Mozart Myths. A Critical Reassessment. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991: 74–5

Bauer WA Deutsch OE Eibl JH , Eds. Briefe und Aufzeichnungen: Gesamtausgabe. Kassel: Bärenreiter-Verlag, 1962–75: no. 535, 8 November 1780

Risse GB . “Typhus” fever in the eighteenth-century hospitals: new approaches to medical “treatment”. Bull Hist Med. 1985; 59: 176–95

Closset Thomas Dr (1754–1813) was Mozart's doctor during his last illness

Barthelme E. Sur la fièvre miliaire ardente. A propos de la mort de Mozart. Histoire des Sciences Médicales 1983; 17: 23–8, Bar C (op. cit. ref. 6):52

Nissen GN (op. cit. ref. 1):575

Davies PJ (op. cit. ref. 6):197; Wheater M. Death of Mozart. J R Soc Med. 1991; 84: 179

Duda G (op. cit. ref. 6):138; Pfannhauser K. Epilegomena Mozartiana. Salzburg: Mozart-Jahrbuch, 1971–2; Bär C (op. cit. ref. 6):39, 59; Niemetschek F. Leben des K.K Kapellmeisters Wolfgang Gottlieb Mozart. 1798, 1808. Reprinted Saint-Etienne: Université de Saint Etienne, 1976:232; Nissen GN (op. cit. ref. 1):564

Bär C (op. cit. ref. 6):40

Risse GB (op. cit. ref. 37):189, 193; Ludewig AM (op. cit. ref. 33):20

He might have suffered, by way of illustration, from severe muscular aches, tenderness or stiffness, as in the various fibromyalgias, including those related to severe infections, or from uraemic polyneuropathy, which may be tell-tale signs of high blood urea in case of renal failure

Novello V Novello M (op. cit. ref. 31):215; Kerner D . 180 Jahre Mozart-Pathographie (1791–1871). Münchener Med Wochenschr 1971; 48: 1664–71; Bär C (op. cit. ref. 6):38–9

Greither A. Noch einmal; woran ist Mozart gestorben? Mitteilungen der Internationalen Stiftung Mozarteum 1971; 9: 25–32

Bauer WA , (op. cit. ref. 36): no. 897, 11 November 1785

Hunter J. In: Long ER , Ed. Selected Readings in Pathology Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas, 1961

Bär C. Replik zum Aufsatz von A Greither. Mitteilungen der Internationalen Stiftung Mozarteum 1971; 19: 31–2

Dalchow J Duda G Kerner D. W. A. Mozart. Die Dokumentation seines Todes. Pähl: Franz von Bebenburg Verlag, 1966; Dalchow J Duda G Kerner D. Mozarts Tod. 1791–1971. Pähl: Franz von Bebenburg Verlag, 1971; Franken FH . Mozarts Todeskrankheit. Fortschritte der Medizin 1980; 98: 301–2; Franken FH . Die Krankheiten grosser Komponisten, vol II. Wilhelmshaven: Florian Noetzel Verlag, 1991; Jenkins JS (op. cit. ref. 21); Ludewig AM (op. cit. ref. 33); Ehrlich GE. New thoughts on Mozart's terminal illness. Dalhousie Review 1993; 73:241–5; Bär C (op. cit. ref. 6):39, 59

Bär C (op. cit. ref. 6):39, 57, 60; Kerner D (op. cit. ref. 31):32

Nissen GN (op. cit. ref. 1):572; Novello V Novello M (op. cit. ref. 31):128

Bär C (op. cit. ref. 6):40

Risse GB (op. cit. ref. 37):183; Franken FH (op. cit. ref. 32):58

Novello V Novello M (op. cit. ref. 31):95

Deutsch OE (op. cit. ref. 34):451, glühenden Kopf, Nissen GN (op. cit. ref. 1):574, heissen Kopf, Risse GB (op. cit. ref. 37):193

Kisskalt K. Die Sterblichkeit im 18. Jahrhundert. Zeitschrift für Hygiene unde Infektionskrankheiten 1921; 93: 483–511; Kerner D. Mozart als Patient. Schweiz Med Wochenschr 1956; 86: 1343–6

Wear A. The history of personal hygiene. In: Bynum WF, Porter R (op. cit. ref. 3)

Bär C (op. cit. ref. 6):40; Bauer WA , (op. cit. ref. 36): no. 1397, 7 April 1825

Nissen GN (op. cit. ref. 1):572–5; Niemetschek F (op. cit. ref. 42):234; Deutsch OE (op. cit. ref. 1):511, 524–7; Novello V Novello M (op. cit. ref. 31):97; Janh O. Life of Mozart. London: Ewer & Co., 1882: vol. III, p. 358

Nissen GN (op. cit. ref. 1):575

Bär C (op. cit. ref. 6):59; Nissen GN (op. cit. ref. 1):575; Ludewig R (op. cit. ref. 33):20

Deutsch OE (op. cit. ref. 34):449; Deutsch OE (op. cit. ref. 1):523; Holmes E (op. cit. ref. 1):349

Greither A. Mozart und die Ärtzte, seine Krankheiten und sein Tod. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 1956; 81: 165–9; Kerner D. Krankheiten grosser Musiker. Stuttgart; Schattauer, 1986:55; Davies PJ (op. cit. ref. 6):197

Ludewig AM (op. cit. ref. 33):20; Bär C (op. cit. ref. 6):65, 72; Mozart J. Stone As an illness. Cambridge Quarterly 1991; 20: 80–6

Davies PJ (op. cit. ref. 6):197

Novello V Novello M (op. cit. ref. 31):215; Oulibicheff A. Mozart. 1843. Reprinted Paris: Librairie Séguier, 1991:179; Janh O. W. A. Mozart. Leipzig: Breitkopf und Härtel, 1856–9: vol. IV, p. 685; Nissen GN (op. cit. ref. 1):574; Schurig A (op. cit. ref. 1): vol. II, p. 387

Davies PJ (op. cit. ref. 6):165; Wilder V (op. cit. ref. 14): vol. I, p. 372; Wheater M (op. cit. ref. 42) Mozart's M. Wheater Health and final illness. Dalhouise Review 1993; 73: 213–23

Davies PJ (op. cit. ref. 6):163; Blom E. Mozart. London: Dent & Sons, 1962: 165; Jahn O (op. cit. ref. 27); vol. III, p. 354; Jahn O (op. cit. ref. 68):682; Stone J (op. cit. ref. 66):82

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Davies PJ (op. cit. ref. 6):204; Deutsch OE (op. cit. ref. 1):563–6; Weizman E. Eine Mozart-Fälschung und ihre Folgen. Wiener Zeitung 1956: 78; Cormican B. Mozart's Death—Mozart's Requiem. An Investigation. Belfast: Amadeus Press, 1991: 193–200; Stone J . More on the Mozart puzzles. Musical Times 1998; 129: 343–4

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Nissen GN (op. cit. ref. 1): suppl., p. 30

Deutsch OE (op. cit. ref. 1): 556

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Deutsch OE (op. cit. ref. 1):522; Bär C (op. cit. ref. 6):84; Kerner D (op. cit. ref. 31):32

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Kerner D. Das Requiem Problem. Neue Zeitschrift für Musik 1974; 135: 475–9; Düriegl G , Ed. Zaubertöne. Mozart in Wein 1781–1791. Vienna: Eigenverlag Museen der Stadt Wien, 1990:526; Holmes E (op. cit. ref. 1):349; Eibl JH. Mozart: die Dokumente seines Lebens. Addenda und Corrigenda. Kassel: Bärenreiter, 1978:73; Deutsch OE (op. cit. ref. 1):416; Deutsch OE (op. cit. ref. 34):367–8; Nissen GN (op. cit. ref. 1):572

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Duda G (op. cit. ref. 6):74–5; Deutsch OE (op. cit. ref. 1):581–2; Fuhrmann R “Frieselfieber und Aderlass” im Spiegel der medizinische Literatur zur Zeit Mozarts. Mitteilungen der Internationalen Stiftung Mozarteum 1989; 37: 83–136; Risse GB (op. cit. ref. 37):189. The application of cold compresses in cases of fever was introduced in 1770 by the Silesian physician Johann Sigismund Hahn (1686–1773). Massaging the forehead with cold water or vinegar was also a common treatment for headaches in typhus fever

Fichte IH (op. cit. ref. 82):6

In a copy of the 1808 edition of Niemetschek's life of Mozart, which is at the Library of the Mozarteum

Neukomm S. Allerlei. Aus Französischen Blättern. Berliner Allgemeine Musikzeitung 1826; 20: 172; Neukomm. In: Grosser JE . Lebenbeschreibung des KK Kapellmeister Wolfg. Amadeus Mozart. Breslau: JD. Grüson et Corns, 1826: 49–52; Noch Köhler G. Einmal: Mozarts Tod. Acta Mozartiana 1957; 469–74; Franken FH (op. cit. ref. 52):52

Weizman E. Wurde Mozart vergiftet? Arbeitzer-Zeitung, April 1957; Bär B (op. cit. ref. 6):79; Cormican B (op. cit. ref. 72):222

Bär C (op. cit. ref. 6):79–83; Ludewig AM (op. cit. ref. 33): 23–5