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Abstract

Jute fibres were processed with different types of structures, and these fibres were applied to prepare friction composites through compression moulding. The Structured Jute fibres reinforced Friction composites (SJF) were heat-treated using a heat treatment tank, and the mechanical and tribological properties of the SJF were investigated with a friction-wear tester. The surface morphologies of friction composites were observed using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). The experimental results showed that structured jute fibres could improve impact strength of SJF, but they had no obvious effect on their density and hardness. The friction-wear tests revealed the specimens to present a remarkable fade phenomenon when the test temperature was above 200°C. The presence of the structured jute fibres could decrease the wear rates (V) of SJF when the temperatures were in the range of 250 to 350°C, especially for specimens containing beaded jute fibres and specimens containing dumbbell-shaped jute fibres. They also increased the friction stability and decreased the wear rates of the friction composites. For all specimens, wear rates of the SJF increased with the test temperature. The results of this study could be useful in many applications, such as automobile brake system, clutches and friction gearings.

Keywords

natural fibres composite structured jute fibre physical and mechanical properties friction wear

1. Introduction

Friction composites are the key components in many applications, such as automobile brake system, clutches and friction gearings of terrain machines. This machinery equipment required friction composites to possess stable friction coefficient, excellent wear resistance under the operating condition of high load, speed and temperature, and environment friendliness^1–3. Friction composites should also sustain high mechanical, thermal loadings, etc. under complex operation conditions^4,5. In order to achieve these excellent practical properties, friction composites are usually composed of more than 10 components, such as reinforcing fibres, high molecular weight binders, property modifiers and other ingredients^6–8. Among these components of friction composites, the fibres play a very crucial role in determining thermal resistance, mechanical and physical strength, and tribological properties^9–11.

With increases of global ecology risk and consumption of petroleum resources, natural fibres have found their way to replace conventional synthetic fibres, and are increasingly applied in the friction composites industry^12–13. They can be acquired from natural biology, and offer some unique advantages like non-toxicity, non-corrosive properties, recyclability and biodegradable nature^14–16. Based on the above facts, the natural fibres have drawn great attention from both foreign and domestic scholars. Many researchers have studied the effects of natural fibre content, structure and length on the properties of the friction composites. Shalwan et al.¹⁷ investigated the effects of date palm fibre and graphite filler on the mechanical and tribological performance of the epoxy composites. The experimental results showed that the synthetic fibre could be favourably replaced by natural fibres, because they could improve the wear rates and stabilise the friction coefficient more than the synthetic fibres. Ma et al.¹⁸ investigated the mechanical, friction and wear performance of friction composites containing pine needle fibres. The research results indicated that those friction composites could stabilise the friction coefficient and decrease thermal fade compared with composites without reinforcing fibres; the friction composite containing 7 wt.% of the reinforced fibres presented sound wear resistance compared with other friction composites in different temperature, except at a temperature of 200°C, and it had a smooth worn surface.

However, researchers found that natural reinforcing fibres had some specific drawbacks, such as poor compatibility and bad interfacial adhesion^19–21. These drawbacks reduced the efficiency of the load transfer from substrate to fibre, led to poor mechanical performance of friction composites and weaker fibre/matrix interface adhesion^22,23. Therefore, some researchers searched for other effective methods to improve the drawbacks of natural reinforcing fibres^24,25. Zhang et al.²⁶ investigated the influence of helical fibres on the impact fracture toughness of carbon fibre-reinforced polymer composites. The results showed that the impact fracture toughness could be increased markedly compared to friction composites containing straight fibres with the same interfacial strength between fibre and substrate. This was because the helical structure of the fibres could improve the elasticity of the fibres. Ma et al.¹¹ investigated the tribological performance of friction materials containing dumbbell-shaped jute fibres. The results indicated that the length of the structure dumbbell-shaped structure had no remarkable effects on the friction coefficients. The friction coefficients of composites containing dumbbell-shaped fibres presented great fluctuation compared to those of friction materials containing straight fibre at raised temperature. The friction materials containing fibres with dumbbell-shaped spacing of 15 mm had excellent abrasion resistance, except in the range 200°C–250°C.

The above studies indicated that the structured fibres could improve the poor compatibility of fibres and the interfacial strength between the fibres and substrate, but the related studies were too few and needed further work to enrich and develop different structured fibres. In the present work, jute fibres, one of the most abundant natural fibres in China, were treated with alkaline solution, and then these fibres with different types of structures were used as reinforcing fibres to prepare friction composites. The effects of structured jute fibres on the mechanical, physical and tribological performance of SJF were investigated with a friction-wear tester. Furthermore, the worn surfaces of friction composites were analysed using the Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM).

2. Experimental Materials and Methods

2.1 Treatment and model of jute fibres

The treatment of jute fibres was mentioned in a previous published paper of the authors¹¹. Jute fibres, purchased from Fuzhou in China, were subjected to the following treatments before using them for reinforcing fibres. They were firstly put into a mixed solution of HCHO and C₆H₆ (1:1) for 24 h at room temperature; and dipped in sodium hydroxide solution (17%vol) for 2 h and washed with distilled water at room temperature, used sulphuric acid solution (2%vol) to neutralise alkali solution for 30 min, immersed in distilled water for 10 min at room temperature, and then dried using an oven at 140°C for 3 h.

The structured fibres were processed by a XH90-36-2 type horizontal fibre knitting machine and the concrete operating procedure could be acquired from the author's patent²⁷. Then the above-structured fibres were continued to process into four different types of structured jute fibres by hand. The four different types of structured jute fibres were named as rhizamorphoid jute fibres, beaded jute fibres, pin-shaped jute fibres and dumbbell-shaped jute fibres. Schematic diagrams of the structured jute fibres are shown in Figure 1 , in which the black circular dots represent the globular structure of structured jute fibres. The straight jute fibres were 15 mm in length and 0.5±0.04 mm in diameter. The structured jute fibres were 15 mm in length and their globular structure diameter was 2±0.06 mm, and the diameter of remaining part of structured jute fibres was 0.5±0.04 mm.

Figure 1

Schematic diagrams of the structured jute fibres

2.2 Preparation of the Friction Composite Specimens

The friction composites consisted of 18 wt% compound mineral fibres (Peking, China), 13 wt% cashew nut shell liquid modified phenolic resin (Jinan, China), 5 wt% petroleum coke (150 mesh), 4 wt% vermiculite (200 mesh), 2 wt% friction powder, 20 wt% precipitated barium sulphate, 11 wt% alumina (300 mesh), 6 wt% artificial graphite, 13 wt% iron powder (60 mesh), 3 wt% antimony sulphide (100 mesh) and 5 wt% jute fibres. Among these raw materials, compound mineral fibres and jute fibres were selected as reinforcing ingredients.

The reinforcing fibres, property modifiers and polymer binders were weighed with a sensitivity of 0.01 g and completely mixed using a JF805R type mixer for 10 min. Then the mixtures were fabricated by a JFY50 type compression moulder for 30 min at 160°C under 40 MPa, and then the friction composite specimens were heat-treated at an oven²⁸. The heat treatment process is presented in Figure 2 . Finally, the specimens were cut into slabs of 25 mm × 25 mm × 6 mm to prepare for the friction and wear tests. The friction composites containing straight jute fibre, rhizamorphoid jute fibres, beaded jute fibres, pin-shaped jute fibres and dumbbell-shaped jute fibres were designated as F1, F2, F3, F4 and F5, respectively.

Figure 2

Heat treatment process for preparation of friction composites

2.3 Physical and mechanical tests

Before the tests, the density of the friction composite specimens was measured using a MP-5002 type electronic balance. The Rockwell hardness value of each testing specimen was measured using a HRSS-150 type Rockwell hardness tester. The impact strength of each test specimen was measured using a XJ-40A typed impact testing machine. The worn surface morphology of jute fibre (untreated and treated fibres), and the worn surfaces of the specimens, were characterised using an EVO-18 typed SEM at 20 kV.

2.4 Friction and wear tests

The friction composite specimens were evaluated on a JF150D-II friction testing machine with linear sliding speed of 7.45 m/s and 0.98 MPa pressure under dry sliding conditions²⁹. Cast iron (HT250) was chosen as the material of the rotating disc. The experimental device schematic diagram is shown in Figure 3 . The rotating disc was heated using a heating device, and the friction coefficient (μ) and specific wear rate (V, cm³/N·m) were measured at 100, 150, 200, 250, 300 and 350°C during the tests. The friction coefficients and wear rates were calculated according to the following equations¹⁸.

μ = \frac{f_{m}}{P}

(1)

V = \frac{1}{2 π R} \frac{A}{N} \frac{d_{1} - d_{2}}{f_{m}}

(2)

where f_m is the mean value of the force due to sliding friction (N), P is the normal load (N). R is the horizon distance between the specimen centre and the rotating disk (R = 150 mm), N is the number of rotation of the rotating disc during test (N = 5000), A is the friction area of the specimen (A = 625 mm²), d₁ is the average thickness of specimen before test (cm) and d₂ is the average thickness of the specimen after testing (cm).

Figure 3

Schematic of the friction-wear mode²⁰

3. Results and Discussion

3.1 Physical and mechanical properties of friction composites

Physical and mechanical properties strongly determine the friction and wear properties of friction composites, and also determine the reliability and safety of vehicle operation¹⁸.

The physical and mechanical properties of the friction composites are listed in Table 1 . Clearly, the densities of the five kinds of friction composites were roughly similar, and this indicated that the structured jute fibres had no marked influence on the density of friction composites. The hardnesses of different friction composites were slightly different. On the whole, the hardnesses of specimen F2 and specimen F4 were the highest and the lowest, respectively, and those of specimens F3 and F5 were relatively modest. The impact strength of SJF was larger than that of the friction composites containing straight jute fibre. The more globular the structure of jute fibres, the higher the value of impact strength. The impact strength of specimen F3 containing beaded jute fibres was the largest and that of specimen F1 without fibre structure was the lowest. The reason for this is probably that the alkaline solution treatment improved the compatibility of jute fibres, and the existence of structured jute fibres improved the interface adhesion between the jute fibre and composite material matrix.

Table 1
Physical and mechanical properties

Density (g/cm³) Hardness (HRR) Impact strength (MPa)

F1 2.28±0.01 104.0±2.5 0.506±0.015

F2 2.28±0.04 104.6±2.5 0.847±0.039

F3 2.27±0.02 103.0±3.2 0.903±0.054

F4 2.26±0.01 102.7±1.9 0.561±0.022

F5 2.26±0.02 103.1±3.5 0.822±0.021

	Density (g/cm³)	Hardness (HRR)	Impact strength (MPa)
F1	2.28±0.01	104.0±2.5	0.506±0.015
F2	2.28±0.04	104.6±2.5	0.847±0.039
F3	2.27±0.02	103.0±3.2	0.903±0.054
F4	2.26±0.01	102.7±1.9	0.561±0.022
F5	2.26±0.02	103.1±3.5	0.822±0.021

3.2 Surface morphologies of jute fibres

Surface morphologies of the jute fibres before and after treatment with alkaline solutions are shown in Figure 4 . As may be observed in Figure 4 , the surface of the jute fibre with alkali treatment is rougher than that without treatment. Some cracks and wrinkled morphology were present on the surface of the jute fibre with alkali treatment. However, the surface of untreated jute fibre was smooth without any wrinkles. It is mainly because the components of the jute fibres, such as hemicellulose and lignin, were removed by alkali treatment, and there remained only the content of cellulose. Wang et al.¹⁹ reported that treated jute fibres had higher cellulose content using analysis by infrared spectroscopy. The treatment of fibres could be beneficial to interfacial bonding strength between the jute fibres and materials substrate^19,21,31,32 and to higher temperature stability¹⁹.

Figure 4

The surfaces of the jute fibres. (a) Untreated fibre, (b) alkaline treated fibre

3.3 Friction and wear properties of SJF

Figure 5 shows the variation of friction coefficients of the friction composites during temperature-increasing procedure. As observed in Figure 5 , friction coefficients of the friction composites generally increased and then decreased with increasing test temperature. Nevertheless, the variation ranges of friction coefficients conformed to the Chinese National Standards GB 5763–2008. The friction coefficient of specimen F2 was about 0.366 at 150°C, and then decreased to a minimum value of 0.265 at 350°C, where it showed great fluctuation. For specimen F4, fluctuation margin of the friction coefficient was relatively small, the difference value between the minimum and maximum values was only 0.07, and the friction coefficient was very stable. However, the fluctuation margin of straight jute fibre-reinforced friction composites was in the middle. This indicated that the existence of some structured fibres could improve the friction coefficient of friction composites to some extent. As is evident from Figure 5 , the friction coefficients of all the composites decreased when the test temperature increased above 200°C, and showed significant fluctuation at a test temperature of 250°C. This is because phenolic resin and jute fibres began to decompose, which was responsible for weakening the fibre/matrix interface adhesion. And then the carbon powder and some film on the friction surface caused a further decrease of the friction coefficients.

Figure 5

Effect of temperature on the friction coefficients for the friction composites

The effects of jute fibres on the wear rates of the friction composites are shown in Figure 6 . As can be seen from Figure 6 , the wear rates of the friction composites were significantly influenced by the test temperature, and increased with increasing temperature. This is consistent with our previous research results^11,18. It indicated that high test temperature could melt the resin and then loosen the material substrate. The wear rate of straight jute fibre-reinforced friction composites was the largest among those of other specimens at each temperature, except in the range of 100°C–200°C.

Figure 6

Effect of temperature on the wear rates for the friction composites

Compared with straight jute fibre-reinforced friction composites, the wear rates of SJF were lower at high temperature. This is because that existence of structured fibres increased the contact area and specific surface of jute fibres which could improve preferably interface adhesion between the structured jute fibre and substrate, which is consistent with our previous research results¹¹ and another related study²⁶. Meanwhile, the existence of structured jute fibres in the substrate improved significantly the impact strength of the friction composites ( Table 1 ). Among the structured jute fibre-reinforced composites, specimens F3 and F5 represented both better impact strength ( Table 1 ) and lower wear rates at high temperature than those of other structured jute fibre-reinforced friction composites ( Figure 6 ) for utilisation in automotive brake industry. Meanwhile, the friction composites when designed properly could potentially generate less noise, vibration and judder propensity⁴.

3.4 Evaluation of worn surfaces

The worn surfaces of tested jute fibre reinforced friction composites could provide important information about their tribological properties³³, and they were characterised using an EVO-18 typed SEM operated at 20 kV. Typical worn surfaces of each specimen tested at 350°C are shown in Figure 7 . Figure 7(a) shows the SEM morphology of the straight jute fibre-reinforced friction composites (specimen F1). As is evident, the worn surface of specimen F1 was relative rough, and more jute fibres were pulled out from the matrix by frictional forces and formed spalling pits. This was mainly because some cracks and wrinkles of outer surface of the alkali-treated jute fibre could only improve interfacial adhesion strength between the jute fibres and the matrix within certain limits³⁴. Meanwhile, the hard particles on the rotating disc could compact and destroy the friction surfaces of the specimens, resulting in deepening and enlarging the spalling pits³⁵. These could contribute to the increased friction coefficient and wear rate of specimen F1 ( Figure 6 ).

Figure 7

Surface morphologies of the jute fibre-reinforced friction composites. (a) F1, (b) F2, (c) F3, (d) F4 and (e) F5

Figures 7(b)–7(e) show the SEM morphology of the worn surfaces of SJF. It can be clearly seen that few jute fibres were pulled out from the surface of the friction composites. Compared to the worn surface of specimen F1, those of SJF were smooth and only had a few hard particles; wear debris and wear tracks parallel to the sliding direction appeared on the surfaces, especially those of specimens F3 and F5.

This is chiefly because the existence of structured jute fibres could preferably improve the interfacial adhesion of specimens F3 and F5 to some extent. Zhang et al.²⁶ found that the structured fibres (helical fibres) could be distributed in the form of bundles and improved the fibre bundle/matrix interface. On the contrary, poor interfacial adhesion resulted in the breaking off of hard particles, and these particles acted as abrasives of the third body which was embedded in the surface of the friction composite, and then destroyed the friction surface, resulting in larger wear rate of specimen F1. In an earlier study, Fu et al.³⁶ also reported that the particle abrasion happened when a worn surface was nicked by hard particles.

On worn surfaces of specimens F3 ( Figure 7c ) and F5 ( Figure 7e ), there are some contact patches which consist of primary plateaus and secondary contact plateaus. The secondary contact patches could contribute to stable friction coefficient and lower wear rates^37,38 (Figures 5 and 6). Therefore, the structural design and treatment of reinforced jute fibres provided a simple, effective and environment-friendly method to enhance the interfacial strength between fibres and substrate^39–42, and an alternative method to decrease the wear rate of the friction composites to some extent.

3.5 Existent Forms of the Jute Fibres on the Friction Surface of Friction Composites

Three forms of the jute fibres existed on the friction surface of friction composites during the test process. Form I super interfacial adhesion between fibres and matrix made the jute fibres support the matrix and protect the surface from being removed, and then improved wear resistance of the friction composites. Form II: pulled jute fibres and bare jute fibres were carbonised at high test temperature, and then rubbed against the steel rotating disc [ Figures 8(a) and 8(b) ]. Furthermore, the carbonised fibre debris was transferred to the counterface of the steel rotating disc and friction composite matrix. The increased carbon content on the friction surface had lubricant effects, which could reduce the wear of the friction composites to some extent. Meanwhile, carbonised fibre debris could also recover scratches on the friction surface and form friction film and some contact patches with other wear debris, which could also decrease the wear rates of the friction composites [ Figure 8(c) ]. Form III: some separated jute fibre particles along with other debris existed in the voids and grooves of the worn surface, and they had no significant effect on the entire friction process [ Figure 8(d) ].

Figure 8

Surface morphologies of the jute fibres reinforced friction composites. (a) and (b) F1, (c) and (d) F6

4. Conclusions

In this study, the physical, mechanical and tribological properties of SJF were investigated and evaluated. The conclusions can be summarised as follows:

The structured fibres had a marked influence on the impact strength of the friction composites, but they had no significant influence on the density and hardness of different friction composites.

Some of the structured jute fibres could stabilise the friction coefficient, and the fluctuation margins of the friction coefficient of the friction composites were stable in comparison to those of straight jute fibre-reinforced friction composites.

The anti-wear performance of SJF was observably increased on account of the presence of structured jute fibres, as the wear rates of friction composites was much less, compared to those of straight jute fibre-reinforced friction composites at higher temperature (250°C–350°C).

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

This project was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 51475205), by Jilin Province Science and Technology Development Plan Item (Grant No. 20150519022JH), by Special Foundation of National Key R&D Program of China (2016YFD0701601), by China-EU H2020 FabSurfWAR project (No. S2016G4501).

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Effects of Structured Fibre on Mechanical and Tribological Properties of Phenolic Composites for Application to Friction Brakes

Abstract

Keywords

1. Introduction

2. Experimental Materials and Methods

2.1 Treatment and model of jute fibres

2.4 Friction and wear tests

3.1 Physical and mechanical properties of friction composites

Table 1 Physical and mechanical properties Density (g/cm3) Hardness (HRR) Impact strength (MPa) F1 2.28±0.01 104.0±2.5 0.506±0.015 F2 2.28±0.04 104.6±2.5 0.847±0.039 F3 2.27±0.02 103.0±3.2 0.903±0.054 F4 2.26±0.01 102.7±1.9 0.561±0.022 F5 2.26±0.02 103.1±3.5 0.822±0.021

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

References

Table 1
Physical and mechanical properties

Density (g/cm³) Hardness (HRR) Impact strength (MPa)

F1 2.28±0.01 104.0±2.5 0.506±0.015

F2 2.28±0.04 104.6±2.5 0.847±0.039

F3 2.27±0.02 103.0±3.2 0.903±0.054

F4 2.26±0.01 102.7±1.9 0.561±0.022

F5 2.26±0.02 103.1±3.5 0.822±0.021