This article reviews the Electronically Activated Recorder (EAR) as an ambulatory ecological momentary assessment tool for the real-world observation of daily behavior. Technically, the EAR is an audio recorder that intermittently records snippets of ambient sounds while participants go about their lives. Conceptually, it is a naturalistic observation method that yields an acoustic log of a person’s day as it unfolds. The power of the EAR lies in unobtrusively collecting authentic real-life observational data. In preserving a high degree of naturalism at the level of the raw recordings, it resembles ethnographic methods; through its sampling and coding, it enables larger empirical studies. This article provides an overview of the EAR method; reviews its validity, utility, and limitations; and discusses it in the context of current developments in ambulatory assessment, specifically the emerging field of mobile sensing.
BolgerN.LaurenceauJ.-P. (2013). (See References). A practical guide to planning, executing, and analyzing an ambulatory assessment study.
2.
HarariG.LaneN.WangR.CrosierB.CampbellA.GoslingS. (2016). (see references). A highly informative position paper on smartphone sensing as a research tool for psychological science.
3.
MehlM. R.ConnerT. S. (2012). (See References). A comprehensive handbook that provides a broad overview of experiential, behavioral, and physiological ambulatory assessment methods.
4.
MehlM. R.RobbinsM. L.DetersF. G. (2012). (See References). A detailed discussion of the EAR for the field of health psychology.
5.
ReisH. T.GoslingS. D. (2010). (See References). A broad and highly accessible review of field research methods in psychology.
6.
AlisicE.BarrettA.BowlesP.ConroyR.MehlM. R. (2015). Topical review: Families coping with child trauma: A naturalistic observation methodology. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 41, 117–127. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsv016
7.
BaddeleyJ. L.PennebakerJ. W.BeeversC. G. (2013). Everyday social behavior during a major depressive episode. Social Psychological & Personality Science, 4, 445–452. doi:10.1177/1948550612461654
8.
BarrettL. F.BarrettD. J. (2001). An introduction to computerized experience sampling in psychology. Social Science Computer Review, 19, 175–185. doi:10.1177/089443930101900204
9.
BolgerN.LaurenceauJ.-P. (2013). Intensive longitudinal methods: An introduction to diary and experience sampling research. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
10.
BollichK. L.DorisJ. M.VazireS.RaisonC. L.JacksonJ. J.MehlM. R. (2016). Eavesdropping on character: Assessing everyday moral behaviors. Journal of Research in Personality, 61, 15–21. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2015.12.003
11.
BrownW. C.TragesserS. L.TomkoR. L.MehlM. R.TrullT. J. (2014). Recall of expressed affect during naturalistically observed interpersonal events in those with borderline personality disorder or depressive disorder. Assessment, 21, 73–81. doi:10.1177/1073191113504618
12.
DohertyA. R.HodgesS. E.KingA. C.SmeatonA. F.BerryE.MoulinC. J.. . . FosterC. (2013). Wearable cameras in health. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 44, 320–323. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2012.11.008
13.
FunderD. C. (2009). Naive and obvious questions. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4, 340–344. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01135.x
14.
HarariG.LaneN.WangR.CrosierB.CampbellA.GoslingS. (2016). Using smartphones to collect behavioral data in psychological science: Opportunities, practical considerations, and challenges. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 11, 838–854.
15.
HolleranS. E.WhiteheadJ.SchmaderT.MehlM. R. (2011). Talking shop and shooting the breeze: A study of workplace conversations and job disengagement among STEM faculty. Social Psychological & Personality Science, 2, 65–71. doi:10.1177/1948550610379921
16.
HoltzmanN. S.VazireS.MehlM. R. (2010). Sounds like a narcissist: Behavioral manifestations of narcissism in everyday life. Journal of Research in Personality, 44, 478–484. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2010.06.001
17.
MehlM. R.ConnerT. S. (2012). Handbook of research methods for studying daily life. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
18.
MehlM. R.GoslingS. D.PennebakerJ. W. (2006). Personality in its natural habitat: Manifestations and implicit folk theories of personality in daily life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 862–877. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.90.5.862
19.
MehlM. R.HolleranS. E. (2007). An empirical analysis of the obtrusiveness of and participants’ compliance with the electronically activated recorder (EAR). European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 23, 248–257. doi:10.1027/1015-5759.23.4.248
20.
MehlM. R.PennebakerJ. W. (2003). The sounds of social life: A psychometric analysis of students’ daily social environments and natural conversations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 857–870. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.857
21.
MehlM. R.PennebakerJ. W.CrowD. M.DabbsJ.PriceJ. H. (2001). The Electronically Activated Recorder (EAR): A device for sampling naturalistic daily activities and conversations. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers, 33, 517–523.
22.
MehlM. R.RobbinsM. L.DetersF. G. (2012). Naturalistic observation of health-relevant social processes: The electronically activated recorder methodology in psychosomatics. Psychosomatic Medicine, 74, 410–417. doi:10.1097/PSY.0b013e3182545470
23.
MehlM. R.VazireS.HolleranS. E.ClarkC. S. (2010). Eavesdropping on happiness well-being is related to having less small talk and more substantive conversations. Psychological Science, 21, 539–541. doi:10.1177/0956797610362675
24.
MehlM. R.VazireS.Ramirez-EsparzaN.SlatcherR. B.PennebakerJ. W. (2007). Are women really more talkative than men?Science, 317, 82. doi:10.1126/science.1139940
25.
MillerG. (2012). The smartphone psychology manifesto. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7, 221–237. doi:10.1177/1745691612441215
26.
Ramirez-EsparzaN.MehlM. R.Alvarez-BermudezJ.PennebakerJ. W. (2009). Are Mexicans more or less sociable than Americans? Insights from a naturalistic observation study. Journal of Research in Personality, 43, 1–7. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2008.09.002
27.
ReisH. T.GoslingS. D. (2010). Social psychological methods outside the laboratory. In FiskeS.GilbertD.LindzeyG. (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (5th ed., Vol. 1, pp. 82–114). New York, NY: Wiley.
28.
RobbinsM. L.MehlM. R.HolleranS. E.KasleS. (2011). Naturalistically observed sighing and depression in rheumatoid arthritis patients: A preliminary study. Health Psychology, 30, 129–133. doi:10.1037/a0023431
29.
RozinP. (2001). Social psychology and science: Some lessons from Solomon Asch. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5, 2–14. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0501_1
30.
SandstromG. M.LathiaN.MascoloC.RentfrowP. J. (2016). Opportunities for smartphones in clinical care: The future of mobile mood monitoring. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 77(2), e135–137. doi:10.4088/JCP.15com10054
31.
Schmid MastM.Gatica-PerezD.FrauendorferD.NguyenL.ChoudhuryT. (2015). Social sensing for psychology: Automated interpersonal behavior assessment. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 24, 154–160. doi:10.1177/0963721414560811
32.
SechrestL.McKnightP.McKnightK. (1996). Calibration of measures for psychotherapy outcome studies. American Psychologist, 51, 1065–1071.
33.
SlatcherR. B.RoblesT. F. (2012). Preschoolers’ everyday conflict at home and diurnal cortisol patterns. Health Psychology, 31, 834–838. doi:10.1037/a0026774
34.
SmythJ. M.StoneA. A. (2003). Ecological momentary assessment research in behavioral medicine. Journal of Happiness studies, 4, 35–52.
35.
TobinE. T.KaneH. S.SalehD. J.WildmanD. E.BreenE. C.SecordE.SlatcherR. B. (2015). Asthma-related immune responses in youth with asthma: Associations with maternal responsiveness and expressions of positive and negative affect in daily life. Psychosomatic Medicine, 77, 892–902. doi:10.1097/PSY.0000000000000236
36.
TrullT. J.Ebner-PriemerU. (2014). The role of ambulatory assessment in psychological science. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23, 466–470. doi:10.1177/0963721414550706
37.
VazireS.MehlM. R. (2008). Knowing me, knowing you: The accuracy and unique predictive validity of self-ratings and other-ratings of daily behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 1202–1216. doi:10.1037/a0013314
38.
WettsteinA.ScherzingerM. (2015). Using camera-glasses for the assessment of aggressive behaviour among adolescents in residential correctional care: A small-scale study. Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research, 7, 33–46.
39.
WrzusC.MehlM. R. (2015). Lab and/or field? Measuring personality processes and their social consequences. European Journal of Personality, 29, 250–271. doi:10.1002/per.1986
