Restricted accessResearch articleFirst published online 2026
Are supernatural beliefs and scientific attitudes in conflict over individual health behaviours? An empirical study on cancer-prevention behaviours among middle-aged and senior Chinese
The ‘conflict thesis’ between scientific and supernatural beliefs has attracted considerable intellectual interest. However, empirical studies examining its impact on health behaviours are scarce. To address this gap, drawing on the Health Locus of Control (HLOC) theory, we developed an integrated dual-pathway cognitive model to explore how these conflicting attitudes compete and how they influence health behaviours differently. In an online survey conducted with 673 middle-aged and older Chinese adults, we found that supernatural beliefs did not directly conflict with scientific attitudes. Instead, they competed in predicting cancer-prevention behaviours through their associated sub-beliefs – specifically, cancer fatalism and cancer controllability. Our findings do not support a root-level ‘conflict thesis’ but instead support a downstream-level ‘conflict thesis’. This finding adds to the literature on the ‘conflict thesis’ and enhances our understanding of how conflict manifests in the cancer-prevention setting. The cultural specificity and generalizability of this study are discussed.
AdedimejiAALounsburyDPopoolaO, et al. (2017) Improving outcomes in cancer diagnosis, prevention and control: Barriers, facilitators and the need for health literacy in Ibadan Nigeria. Psycho-oncology26(10): 1455–1462.
2.
AghvinianMMorrisEPSavinMJ, et al. (2022) Health Locus of Control and neurocognitive function in Latinx and non-Latinx White people living with HIV: A cross-sectional study. JANAC-Journal of the Association of Nurses in Aids Care33(3): 248–258.
3.
AjzenI (2002) Perceived behavioural control, self-efficacy, locus of control, and the theory of planned behaviour. Journal of Applied Social Psychology32(4): 665–683.
4.
AllumNSibleyESturgisP, et al. (2014) Religious beliefs, knowledge about science and attitudes towards medical genetics. Public Understanding of Science23(7): 833–849.
5.
BakerJO (2012) Public perceptions of incompatibility between ‘science and religion’. Public Understanding of Science21(3): 340–353.
6.
BarbourIG (2002a) Nature, Human Nature, and God. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press.
7.
BarbourIG (2002b) On typologies for relating science and religion. Zygon: Journal of Religion and Science37(2): 345–360.
8.
Baron-EpelOLevin-ZamirDCohenV, et al. (2019) Internal locus of control, health literacy and health, an Israeli cultural perspective. Health Promotion International34(2): 248–257.
9.
BarrosoCCarriónGCRoldánJL (2009) Applying maximum likelihood and PLS on different sample sizes: Studies on SERVQUAL model and employee behaviour model. In: Esposito VinziVChinWHenselerJWangH (eds) Handbook of Partial Least Squares: Concepts, Methods and Applications. Berlin; Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 427–447.
10.
BatemanT (2008) The science-religion discourse: Models of relation beyond Barbour. Omega: Indian Journal of Science and Religion7(1): 5–20.
11.
BefortCANazirNEngelmanK, et al. (2013) Fatalistic cancer beliefs and information sources among rural and urban adults in the USA. Journal of Cancer Education28(3): 521–526.
12.
BilletMINorenzayanA (2023) Global supernatural beliefs. Nature Human Behaviour7(5): 670–671.
13.
BrookeJH (1991) Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives. London: Cambridge University Press.
14.
BudenholzerFE (2001) Religion and science in Taiwan: Rethinking the connection. Zygon36(4): 753–764.
15.
CaiazzaJC (2005) Fortieth anniversary symposium: Science, religion, and secularity in a technological society–Athens, Jerusalem, and the arrival of techno-secularism. Zygon40(1): 9–21.
16.
CavojováVSrolJMikuskováEB (2024) Scientific reasoning is associated with rejection of unfounded health beliefs and adherence to evidence-based regulations during the COVID-19 pandemic. Current Psychology43(9): 8288–8302.
17.
ChanEMehtaSK (2022) Fertilizing morality: How religiosity and orientations toward science shape the morality, immorality, and amorality of reproductive technologies. Public Understanding of Science31(4): 376–393.
18.
ClarkeS (2009) Naturalism, science and the supernatural. Sophia48(2): 127–142.
19.
Cobb-ClarkDAKassenboehmerSCSchurerS (2014) Healthy habits: The connection between diet, exercise, and locus of control. Journal of Economic Behaviour and Organization98: 1–28.
20.
CorderoA (2009) Contemporary science and worldview-making. Science and Education18(6–7): 747–764.
21.
DamperRI (2024) Science and religion in conflict, part 2: Barbour’s four models revisited. Foundations of Science29(3): 703–740.
22.
De JesusMMillerEB (2015) Examining breast cancer screening barriers among Central American and Mexican immigrant women: Fatalistic beliefs or structural factors?Health Care for Women International36(5): 593–607.
23.
De JesusMXiaoC (2014) Predicting health care utilization among Latinos: Health Locus of Control beliefs or access factors?Health Education & Behaviour41(4): 423–430.
24.
DraperJW (1875) History of the Conflict between Religion and Science. New York, NY: D. Appleton and Company.
25.
EcklundEHParkJZ (2009) Conflict between religion and science among academic scientists?Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion48(2): 276–292.
26.
EcklundEHParkJZSorrellKL (2011) Scientists negotiate boundaries between religion and science. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion50(3): 552–569.
27.
Elsdon-BakerFMason-WilkesW (2019) The sociological study of science and religion in context. In: JonesSHKadenTCattoR (eds) Science, Belief and Society. Bristol: Bristol University Press, pp. 3–24.
28.
EvansMS (2012) Supporting science: Reasons, restrictions, and the role of religion. Science Communication34(3): 334–362.
29.
FaladeB (2020) Science, belief and society: International perspectives on religion, non-religion and the public understanding of science. Public Understanding of Science29(2): 1–2.
30.
FariasMvan MulukomVKahaneGKreplinUJoyceASoaresP, et al. (2017) Supernatural belief is not modulated by intuitive thinking style or cognitive inhibition. Scientific Reports7: 15100.
31.
FulmerGW (2014) Undergraduates’ attitudes toward science and their epistemological beliefs: Positive effects of certainty and authority beliefs. Journal of Science Education and Technology23(1): 198–206.
32.
GoldbergMHGustafsonABallewMT, et al. (2019) A social identity approach to engaging Christians in the issue of climate change. Science Communication41(4): 442–463.
33.
GongP (2012) Cultural history holds back Chinese research. Nature481(7382): 411.
GullatteMMBrawleyOKinneyA, et al. (2010) Religiosity, spirituality, and cancer fatalism beliefs on delay in breast cancer diagnosis in African American women. Journal of Religion and Health49(1): 62–72.
36.
GuthrieS (1993) Faces in the Clouds: A New Theory of Religion. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
37.
GwandureCMayekisoT (2012) Internal versus external control of reinforcement in health risk and HIV and AIDS prevention. Journal of Applied Social Psychology42(7): 1599–1624.
38.
HanBFZhengRSZengHM, et al. (2024) Cancer incidence and mortality in China, 2022. Journal of the National Cancer Center4(1): 47–53.
39.
HarrisonP (2015) The Territories of Science and Religion. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
40.
HaywardRDKrauseNIronsonG, et al. (2016) Externalizing religious health beliefs and health and well-being outcomes. Journal of Behavioural Medicine39(5): 887–895.
41.
HendriksFKienhuesDBrommeR (2016) Trust in science and the science of trust. In: BlöbaumB (ed.) Trust and Communication in a Digitized World: Models and Concepts of Trust Research. Cham: Springer, pp. 143–159.
42.
HoffmannAPlotkinaDRogerP, et al. (2022) Superstitious beliefs, locus of control, and feeling at risk in the face of COVID-19. Personality and Individual Differences196: 111718.
43.
HoltCLCaplanLSchulzEBlakeVSouthwardPBucknerA (2017) Role of religious and spiritual beliefs in cancer screening behaviours among African American men and women. Journal of Religion and Health56(1): 189–201.
44.
HoltzmanS (2003) Science and religion: The categorial conflict. International Journal for Philosophy of Religion54(2): 77–99.
45.
JasanoffS (2004) States of Knowledge: The Co-production of Science and the Social Order. New York, NY: Routledge.
46.
JiangX (2013) Chinese dialectical thinking – The yin yang model. Philosophy Compass8(5): 438–446.
47.
JimHSLPustejovskyJEParkCL, et al. (2015) Religion, spirituality, and physical health in cancer patients: A meta-analysis. Cancer121(21): 3760–3768.
48.
JohnsonCThigpenCLFunkC (2020) On the Intersection of Science and Religion. Pew Research Center’s Religion & Public Life Project, 26August. Available at: https://www.pewforum.org/?p=33454
49.
KellerKGToriolaATSchneiderJK (2021) The relationship between cancer fatalism and education. Cancer Causes & Control32(2): 109–118.
50.
KimHKLwinMO (2017) Cultural effects on cancer prevention behaviours: Fatalistic cancer beliefs and risk optimism among Asians in Singapore. Health Communication32(10): 1201–1209.
51.
KimHKLwinMO (2021) Cultural determinants of cancer fatalism and cancer prevention behaviours among Asians in Singapore. Health Communication36(8): 940–949.
52.
KimHT (1972) Transcendence without and within: The concept of T’ien in Confucianism. International Journal for Philosophy of Religion3: 146–160.
KuikCC (2023) Malaysian conceptions of international order: Paradoxes of small-state pragmatism. International Affairs99(4): 1477–1497.
55.
LaiYKYeJFRanQW, et al. (2024) Internet-based eHealth technology for emotional well-being among the older adults with a family cancer history: Full mediation effects of health information self-efficacy and cancer fatalism. BMC Psychology12(1): 232.
56.
LeeC-JNiederdeppeJFreresD (2012) Socioeconomic disparities in fatalistic beliefs about cancer prevention and the Internet. Journal of Communication62(6): 972–990.
57.
LeungDYPChowTTWongEML (2017) Cancer-related information seeking and scanning behaviours among older Chinese adults: Examining the roles of fatalistic beliefs and fear. Geriatrics (Basel, Switzerland)2(4): 38.
58.
LeyvaBAllenJDTomLSOspinoHTorresMI (2014) Religion, fatalism, and cancer control: A qualitative study among Hispanic Catholics. American Journal of Health Behaviour38(6): 839–849.
59.
LeyvaBNguyenABCuevasATaplinSHMoserRPAllenJD (2020) Sociodemographic correlates of cancer fatalism and the moderating role of religiosity: Results from a nationally-representative survey. Journal of Prevention and Intervention in the Community48(1): 29–46.
60.
LiJRTanLC (2025) How information-seeking reduces cancer fatalism: A comparison of the mediating role of risk perception in young and older adults. Journal of Cancer Education. Epub ahead of print 3 September. DOI: 10.1007/s13187-025-02730-y.
61.
LindemanMSvedholmAM (2012) What’s in a term? Paranormal, superstitious, magical and supernatural beliefs by any other name would mean the same. Review of General Psychology16(3): 241–255.
62.
LiuEYSchiemanSJangSJ (2011) Religiousness, spirituality, and psychological distress in Taiwan. Review of Religious Research53(2): 137–159.
63.
LongestKCSmithC (2011) Conflicting or compatible: Beliefs about religion and science among emerging adults in the United States. Sociological Forum26(4): 846–869.
64.
Luisa MarvanMEhrenzweigYLilia Catillo-LopezR (2016) Fatalistic beliefs and cervical cancer screening among Mexican women. Health Care for Women International37(1): 140–154.
65.
LyratzopoulosGLiuMP-HAbelGA, et al. (2015) The association between fatalistic beliefs and late stage at diagnosis of lung and colorectal cancer. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers and Prevention24(4): 720–726.
66.
Mason-WilkesW (2020) Secularity and science: What scientists around the world really think about religion. Public Understanding of Science29(6): 666–667.
67.
MitchellJAManningMShiresD, et al. (2015) Fatalistic beliefs about cancer prevention among older African American men. Research on Aging37(6): 606–622.
68.
MoormannPGBarrettNJWangFAlbergJABanderaEVBarnholtz-SloanJB, et al. (2019) Effect of cultural, folk, and religious beliefs and practices on delays in diagnosis of ovarian cancer in African American women. Journal of Women’s Health28(4): 444–451.
NagelhoutGEFongGTThompsonMEWillemsenMC (2021) The influence of religion and supernatural beliefs on health behaviours: A systematic review. Health Psychology Review15(1): 75–94.
71.
NgueutsaRTchagnenoCLWassouoE, et al. (2023) Fatalistic beliefs, cultural beliefs and socio-instrumental control beliefs: What are the links? Can we speak of an active fatalism?Psychological Reports127(6): 3109–3313.
72.
NiederdeppeJLevyAG (2007) Fatalistic beliefs about cancer prevention and three prevention behaviours. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers and Prevention16(5): 998–1003.
73.
NumbersRL (2009) Galileo Goes to Jail and Other Myths about Science and Religion. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
74.
OlagokeAAOlagokeOOHughesAM (2021) Intention to vaccinate against the Novel 2019 Coronavirus disease: The role of Health Locus of Control and religiosity. Journal of Religion and Health60(1): 65–80.
75.
OnyedibeMCCUgwuLENnadozieEE, et al. (2021) Cancer coping self-efficacy mediates the relationship between mental adjustment to cancer and health-related quality of life in persons with cancer. South African Journal of Psychology52(3): 325–337.
76.
PanSWLiangYWuSWangWHuXWangJ, et al. (2022) Health effects of religion, spirituality, and supernatural beliefs in Mainland China: A systematic review. Journal of Religion and Health61(4): 2726–2742.
77.
ParkCLChoDMoorePJ (2018) How does education lead to healthier behaviours? Testing the mediational roles of perceived control, health literacy and social support. Psychology and Health33(11): 1416–1429.
78.
Pinchas-MizrachiRSolnicaADaoudN (2021) Religiosity level and mammography performance among Arab and Jewish women in Israel. Journal of Religion and Health60(3): 1877–1894.
79.
PoweBD (1994) Perceptions of cancer fatalism among African Americans: The influence of education, income, and cancer knowledge. Journal of National Black Nurses’ Association7(2): 41–48.
80.
RiosKAveyardM (2019) Science-religion compatibility beliefs across Middle Eastern and American young adult samples: The role of cross-cultural exposure. Public Understanding of Science28(8): 949–957.
81.
RoweJLMontgomeryGHDubersteinPR, et al. (2005) Health Locus of Control and perceived risk for breast cancer in healthy women. Behavioural Medicine31(1): 33–40.
82.
RussellRJ (2017) Ian barbour’s methodological breakthrough: Creating the ‘bridge’ between science and theology. Theology and Science15(1): 28–41.
83.
Salazar-CollierCLReiningerBMWilkinsonAV, et al. (2021) Exploration of fatalism and religiosity by gender and varying levels of engagement among Mexican-American adults of a type 2 diabetes management program. Frontiers in Public Health9: 652202.
84.
ShaikhSA (2018) Making sense of our existence: The scientific and religious worldview. International Journal of Ethics and Systems34(4): 593–607.
85.
ShustermanR (2004) Pragmatism and East-Asian thought. Metaphilosophy35(1-2): 13–43.
86.
ThomasR (2018) Beyond conflict and complementarity science and religion in contemporary India. Science Technology and Society23(1): 47–64.
87.
TippinsEYsseldykRPeneycadC, et al(2023) Believing in science: Linking religious beliefs and identity with vaccination intentions and trust in science during the COVID-19 pandemic. Public Understanding of Science32(8): 1003–1020.
88.
UeckerJELongestKC (2017) Exposure to science, perspectives on science and religion, and religious commitment in young adulthood. Social Science Research65: 145–162.
89.
ValeraPLianZBrotzmanL, et al. (2018) Fatalistic cancer beliefs and information seeking in formerly incarcerated African-American and Hispanic men: Implications for cancer health communication and research. Health Communication33(5): 576–584.
90.
van BruggenVten KloosterPMvan der AaN, et al. (2018) Structural validity of the World Assumption Scale. Journal of Traumatic Stress31(6): 816–825.
91.
Van EyghenH (2019) Is supernatural belief unreliably formed?International Journal for Philosophy of Religion85(2): 125–148.
92.
VeckalovBvan StekelenburgAvan HarreveldF, et al. (2023) Who is skeptical about scientific innovation? Examining worldview predictors of artificial intelligence, nanotechnology, and human gene editing attitudes. Science Communication45(3): 337–366.
93.
WhiteAD (1896) A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom. New York, NY: D. Appleton and Company.
94.
WintterlinFHendriksFMedeNG, et al. (2022) Predicting public trust in science: The role of basic orientations toward science, perceived trustworthiness of scientists, and experiences with science. Frontiers in Communication6: 822757.
95.
WongLPAliasHHashimMMAAMLeeHYAbuBakarSChungI, et al. (2022) Acceptability for COVID-19 vaccination: Perspectives from Muslims. Human Vaccines and Immunotherapeutics18(5): 2045855.
96.
YangFGHuAN (2012) Mapping Chinese folk religion in mainland China and Taiwan. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion51(3): 505–521.
97.
ZeinRAAltenmuellerMSGollwitzerM (2024) Longtime nemeses or cordial allies? How individuals mentally relate science and religion. Psychological Review131(6): 1459–1481.
98.
ZhangQ (2015) The evolution of ancient Chinese thought. In: ZhangQ (ed.) An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture. Berlin; Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 283–317.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
