This study examines the relationship between air pollution and daily mobility, focusing on daily bus and subway usage in Seoul using panel data with the fixed effects model. This study empirically examines the effect of air pollutant exposure on the daily moving population volume, including daily bus and subway usage in Seoul over 1271 days. The results show that people's sensitivity to particulate matter is complex. The most remarkable aspect of the results is that people are not sensitive to continuous pollutant levels, but to the comprehensive air-quality index (CAI). In addition, people's sensitivity is different depending on the moving distance and the means of transportation. Considering that CAI is defined by adopting the first air quality guidelines proposed by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2005, these results explain how sensitive people are to the human health risks of particulate matter exposure recommended by the WHO. Our findings can be used as evidence to establish the new particulate matter standards and policies that can be strengthened by reflecting the recently updated WHO's air quality guidelines in 2021.
BrunekreefBHolgateST. Air pollution and health. Lancet2002; 360: 1233–1242.
2.
HortonAJonesSJBruntH. Air pollution and public health vulnerabilities, susceptibilities and inequalities in Wales, UK. J of Public Health. Forthcoming.
3.
JenkinsSHayD. Air pollution, health and exercise: a review. Energy Environ1996; 7: 51–56.
4.
WHO. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (and), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide. Germany: WHO European Centre for Environment and Health, 2021.
5.
WHO. Air quality guidelines: global update 2005. Particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide. Copenhagen: WHO Regional Office for Europe, 2006.
6.
OECD. Environment at a glance indicators. Paris: OECD Publishing, 2022.
7.
CurrieJ. Pollution and infant health. Child Dev Perspect2013; 7: 237–242.
8.
DeCiccaPMalakN. When good fences aren’t enough: the impact of neighboring air pollution on infant health. J Environ Econ Manage2020; 102: 102324.
9.
YangMChouSY. The impact of environmental regulation on fetal health: evidence from the shutdown of a coal-fired power plant located upwind of New Jersey. J Environ Econ Manage2018; 90: 269–293.
10.
OECD. Air quality and health: Mortality and welfare cost from exposure to air pollution. OECD Environment Statistics (database), 2022. https://doi.org/10.1787/c14fb169-en.
11.
WangXYinCShaoC. Relationships among haze pollution, commuting behavior and life satisfaction: a quasi-longitudinal analysis. Transp Res D, Transp Environ2021; 92: 102723.
12.
KimEAhnYRyuD. Application of the carbon emission pricing model in the Korean market. Energy Environ2014; 25: 63–78.
13.
GhorbalSBen YoussefS. Scrutinizing the role of renewable energy and patents in pollution abatement and economic growth in South Korea. Energy Environ2023; Forthcoming.
14.
OECD. Urban transport governance and inclusive development in Korea. Paris: OECD Publishing, 2017.
LeroutierMQuirionP. Air pollution and CO2 from daily mobility: who emits and why? Evidence from Paris. Energy Econ2022; 109: 105941.
17.
YangEBaeHRyuD. What makes the level of particulate matter emissions worse in Korea?Rom J Econ Forecast2022; 25: 128–143.
18.
CohenAJRoss AndersonHOstroB, et al.The global burden of disease due to outdoor air pollution. J Toxicol Environ Health Part A2005; 68: 1301–1307.
19.
Pope IIICADockeryDW. Health effects of fine particulate air pollution: lines that connect. J Air Waste Manage Assoc2006; 56: 709–742.
20.
LadenFSchwartzJSpeizerFE, et al.Reduction in fine particulate air pollution and mortality: extended follow-up of the Harvard six cities study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med2006; 173: 667–672.
21.
EngströmEForsbergB. Health impacts of active commuters’ exposure to traffic-related air pollution in Stockholm, Sweden. J Transp Health2019; 14: 100601.
22.
SmallKVerhoefET. The economics of urban transportation. London, New York: Routledge, 2007.
23.
LaneBW. The relationship between recent gasoline price fluctuations and transit ridership in major US cities. J Transp Geogr2010; 18: 214–225.
24.
JankovićVSchultzDM. Atmosfear: communicating the effects of climate change on extreme weather. Weather Clim Soc2017; 9: 27–37.
25.
DePalmaARochatD. Understanding individual travel decisions: results from a commuters survey in Geneva. Transportation1999; 26: 263–281.
26.
CoolsMMoonsEWetsG. Assessing the impact of weather on traffic intensity. Weather Clim Soc2010; 2: 60–68.
27.
SinghalAKamgaCYaziciA. Impact of weather on urban transit ridership. Transp Res A, Policy Pract2014; 69: 379–391.
28.
BlackAWVillariniGMoteTL. Effects of rainfall on vehicle crashes in six US states. Weather Clim Soc2017; 9: 53–70.
29.
ChenKWangMHuangC, et al.Air pollution reduction and mortality benefit during the COVID-19 outbreak in China. Lancet Planet Health2020; 4: e210–e212.
30.
RenYSNarayanSMaCQ. Air quality, COVID-19, and the oil market: evidence from China’s provinces. Econ Anal Policy2021; 72: 58–72.
31.
LeeGChooSKimKY, et al.Analysis of factors affecting perceived risk of COVID-19 infection in public transportation. J Korean Soc Transp2021; 39: 643–661.
32.
KopsidasAMiliotiCKepaptsoglouK, et al.How did the COVID-19 pandemic impact traveler behavior toward public transport? The case of Athens, Greece. Transp Lett2021; 13: 344–352.
33.
WelchEGuXKramerL. The effects of ozone action day public advisories on train ridership in Chicago. Transp Res D Transp Environ2005; 10: 445–458.
34.
ChungJKimSNKimH. The impact of PM10 levels on pedestrian volume: findings from streets in Seoul, South Korea. Int J Environ Res Public Health2019; 16: 4833.
35.
KiDLeeS. Analysis on the relationship between the fine dust concentration and subway ridership for the evaluation of fine dust response policies. J Korea Plann Assoc2019; 54: 79–93.
36.
JoEKimH. The impact of air quality on traveling time by transportation mode. Environ Resour Econ Rev2021; 30: 207–235.
37.
WuJLiaoH. Weather, travel mode choice, and impacts on subway ridership in Beijing. Transp Res A, Policy Pract2020; 135: 264–279.
38.
MaJLiuGKwanMP, et al.Does real-time and perceived environmental exposure to air pollution and noise affect travel satisfaction? Evidence from Beijing, China. Travel Behav Soc2021; 24: 313–324.
39.
HansenBE. Threshold effects in non-dynamic panels: estimation, testing, and inference. J Econom1999; 93: 345–368.
