Restricted accessResearch articleFirst published online 2025
The effect of different types of mastoid vibration on vertical ground reaction force during walking in vision-available and vision-deprived environments
Mastoid vibration (MV) is a non-invasive way to induce vestibular illusions. However, the influence of MV on gait kinetics during different visual conditions has not been well-established. The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of different types of MV (bilateral vs unilateral) on vertical ground reaction force (vGRF) during walking under both vision-available (VA) and vision-deprived (VD) conditions. Twenty healthy adults walked at their preferred speed on a pressure-sensor treadmill and vGRF characteristics (peak forces, impulses, loading/unloading rates, and variability) were recorded under VA and VD conditions, with and without MV. Vision deprivation increased magnitude and variability of most vGRF variables, suggesting more cautious gait. Bilateral MV (but not unilateral MV) significantly increased the components of vGRF and their variabilities in push-off phase, likely as part of a consistent “press forward” motor response to the vestibular illusion. These results show that MV systematically modulates kinetics, particularly when applied bilaterally and with no visual input. This interaction between vestibular and visual afferents in these young adults may lay a foundation and should be considered in the clinical assessment of gait patterns (GRF profiles) in the future, particularly when using pressure sensor embedded treadmills.
PeterkaRJ. Sensorimotor integration in human postural control. J Neurophysiol2002; 88(3): 1097–1118.
2.
PatlaAENiechwiejERaccoV, et al.Understanding the contribution of binocular vision to the control of adaptive locomotion. Exp Brain Res2002; 142(4): 551–561.
3.
KeslerALeibovichGHermanT, et al.Shedding light on walking in the dark: the effects of reduced lighting on the gait of older adults with a higher-level gait disorder and controls. J NeuroEng Rehabil2005; 2: 27.
4.
NuttJG. Classification of gait and balance disorders. Adv Neurol2001; 87: 135–141.
5.
LarssonJHanssonWIsraelsson LarsenH, et al.Higher-level gait disorders: a population-based study on prevalence, quality of life, depression and confidence in gait and balance. BMJ Neurol Open2025; 7(1): e000992.
6.
MalikRNMarigoldDSChowM, et al.Probing the deployment of peripheral visual attention during obstacle-crossing planning. Front Hum Neurosci2022; 16: 1039201.
7.
CullenKE. The vestibular system: multimodal integration and encoding of self-motion for motor control. Trends Neurosci2012; 35(3): 185–196.
8.
ArntzAIvan der PutteDAMJonkerZD, et al.The vestibular drive for balance control is dependent on multiple sensory cues of gravity. Front Physiol2019; 10: 476.
9.
BoutablaARevolRCarvalhoMF, et al.Gait impairments in patients with bilateral vestibulopathy and chronic unilateral vestibulopathy. Front Neurol2025; 16: 1547444.
10.
WangZXieHChienJH. The ground reaction force pattern during walking under vestibular-demanding task with/without mastoid vibration: implication for future sensorimotor training in astronauts. Front Physiol2024; 15: 1325513.
11.
PerryJBurnfieldJ. Gait analysis: normal and pathological function. 2nd ed.CRC Press, 2010.
12.
WiniarskiSRutkowska-KucharskaA. Estimated ground reaction force in normal and pathological gait. Acta Bioeng Biomech2009; 11(1): 53–60.
13.
ChenCYHongPWChenCL, et al.Ground reaction force patterns in stroke patients with various degrees of motor recovery determined by plantar dynamic analysis. Chang Gung Med J2007; 30(1): 62–72.
14.
MagnaniRMBruijnSMvan DieënJH, et al.Stabilization demands of walking modulate the vestibular contributions to gait. Sci Rep2021; 11(1): 13736.
15.
DumasGCurthoysISLionA, et al.The skull vibration-induced nystagmus test of vestibular Function-A review. Front Neurol2017; 8: 41.
16.
NutiDMandalàM. Sensitivity and specificity of mastoid vibration test in detection of effects of vestibular neuritis. Acta Otorhinolaryngol Ital2005; 25(5): 271–276.
17.
AlonsoSMCaletríoÁB. Clinical advancements in skull vibration-induced nystagmus (SVIN) over the last two years: a literature review. J Clin Med2024; 13(23): 7236.
18.
DlugaiczykJGensbergerKDStrakaH. Galvanic vestibular stimulation: from basic concepts to clinical applications. J Neurophysiol2019; 121(6): 2237–2255.
19.
KalronADvirZFridL, et al.Quantifying gait impairment using an instrumented treadmill in people with multiple sclerosis. ISRN Neurol2013; 2013: 867575.
20.
WuJAjisafeT. Kinetic patterns of treadmill walking in preadolescents with and without Down syndrome. Gait Posture2014; 39(1): 241–246.
21.
LückeK. Eine Methode zur Provokation eines pathologischen Nystagmus durch Vibrationsreize von 100 Hz [A vibratory stimulus of 100 Hz for provoking pathological nystagmus (author's transl)]. Z Laryngol Rhinol Otol1973; 52(10): 716–720.
22.
SeveriniGDelahuntE. Effect of noise stimulation below and above sensory threshold on postural sway during a mildly challenging balance task. Gait Posture2018; 63: 27–32.
23.
ChienJHEikemaDJMukherjeeM, et al.Locomotor sensory organization test: a novel paradigm for the assessment of sensory contributions in gait. Ann Biomed Eng2014; 42(12): 2512–2523.
24.
MasaniKKouzakiMFukunagaT. Variability of ground reaction forces during treadmill walking. J Appl Physiol2002; 92(5): 1885–1890.
25.
WinterDA. Biomechanics and motor control of human movement. 2nd ed.Wiley, 1990.
26.
CostelloKEFelsonDTNeogiT, et al.Ground reaction force patterns in knees with and without radiographic osteoarthritis and pain: descriptive analyses of a large cohort (the Multicenter Osteoarthritis Study). Osteoarthr Cartil2021; 29(8): 1138–1146.
27.
Scott-PandorfMMStergiouNJohanningJM, et al.Peripheral arterial disease affects ground reaction forces during walking. J Vasc Surg2007; 46(3): 491–499.
28.
TakahashiTIshidaKHiroseD, et al.Vertical ground reaction force shape is associated with gait parameters, timed up and go, and functional reach in elderly females. J Rehabil Med2004; 36(1): 42–45.
29.
LiWZhangYChienJH. Applying bilateral mastoid vibration changes the margin of stability in the anterior-posterior and medial-lateral directions while walking on different inclines. Eur J Med Res2025; 30(1): 108.
30.
SunYZhuDSongH, et al.Vibrations on mastoid process alter the gait characteristics during walking on different inclines. PeerJ2023; 11: e15111.
31.
LuJXieHChienJH. Different types of mastoid process vibrations affect dynamic margin of stability differently. Front Hum Neurosci2022; 16: 896221.
32.
ShojaOShojaeiMHassanloueiH, et al.Lack of visual information alters lower limb motor coordination to control center of mass trajectory during walking. J Biomech2023; 155: 111650.
33.
HuangBLiangHLinY, et al.Different types of mastoid vibration induce different responses to ground reaction force during walking: an exploratory study. Gait Posture, Published online August 27, 2025.
34.
KavounoudiasAGilhodesJCRollR, et al.From balance regulation to body orientation: two goals for muscle proprioceptive information processing?Exp Brain Res1999; 124(1): 80–88.
35.
HaranFJKeshnerEA. Sensory reweighting as a method of balance training for labyrinthine loss. J Neurol Phys Ther2008; 32(4): 186–191.
36.
WinterDA. Human balance and posture control during standing and walking. Gait Posture1995; 3(4): 193–214.
