In this study, T2 copper rods were welded with cold pressure welding technique. The optimum process parameters were evaluated in terms of tensile strength, and electric resistance using Taguchi and ANOVA optimization method. Welding pressure, welding time, and number of strokes are employed to evaluate the results. The microstructure was investigated using scanning electron microscope. Line hardness measurements were applied to the welded specimens. According to the results, the whole tensile specimens were failed from the base metal. The maximum tensile strength was 233.6 MPa at 4 number of strokes, 0 s of welding duration, and 6 Bar of welding pressure. On the other hand, the minimum resistance was 49.13 µΩ at 4 number of strokes, 5 s of welding duration, and 4 Bar of welding pressure. The hardness was gradually increasing from base metal to the neutral axis of the weld zone.
KürnsteinerPCommendaCArenholzE, et al.Investigation of nanoscale twinning in an advanced high manganese twinning-induced plasticity steel. Materialia2018; 000: 1–8.
2.
MaS, et al.Fuel cell-battery hybrid systems for mobility and off-grid applications: A review. Renew Sustain Energy RevJuly 2020, 2021; 135: 1–20. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2020.110119.
3.
ŞahinSHayatFÇölgeçenOC. The effect of welding current on nugget geometry, microstructure and mechanical properties of TWIP steels in resistance spot welding. Weld WorldMay 2021; 65: 921–935. doi:10.1007/s40194-021-01083-6
4.
KekikMÖzenFOnarV, et al.Investigation effect of resistance spot welding parameters on dissimilar DP1000HF/CP800 steel joints. Sadhana - Acad Proc Eng Sci2022; 47: 1–17.
5.
LiuCPengQXueZ, et al.Microstructure-Tensile properties relationship and austenite stability of a Nb-Mo micro-alloyed Medium-mn TRIP steel. Metals (Basel)2018; 8: 15. doi:10.3390/met8080615
6.
PierreJBSchrickerKSeiboldM. Investigation on indirect laser welding of copper to aluminum. Procedia CIRP2024; 124: 30–35. doi:10.1016/j.procir.2024.08.065
7.
WanL, et al.Achieving high robust laser conduction welding and enhanced joint conductivity in pure copper foil stacks using a flat-top blue laser. Opt Laser Technol2024; 174(August 2023): 1–13. doi: 10.1016/j.optlastec.2024.110701
8.
YusefiAKokabiAHAbediniR, et al.Microstructure evolution and mechanical properties analysis in dissimilar ultrasonic metal welding of aluminum to copper. J Mater Res Technol2024; 30(April): 2922–2935. doi: 10.1016/j.jmrt.2024.04.037.
9.
ChengXmYangKLiuSz, et al.“Microstructure and mechanical properties of ultrasonic welded copper to aluminum cables joints,” Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China (English Ed.), vol. 33, no. 10, pp. 3027–3038, 2023, doi: 10.1016/S1003-6326(23)66315-0.
10.
ChengXmYangKLiuSz, et al.“Microstructure and mechanical properties of ultrasonic welded copper to aluminum cables joints,” Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China (English Ed.), vol. 33, no. 10, pp. 3027–3038, Oct. 2023, doi: 10.1016/S1003-6326(23)66315-0.
11.
TognoliESchrickerKBassoliE, et al.Influence of the eutectic interface on the fatigue behaviour of friction stir spot welds of aluminum with copper. Int J Fatigue2025; 194: 108834.
12.
ud dinMZUmerUTiamiyuAA. Solid-state cold spray welding: evaluation and future direction. J Adv Join Process2023; 8: 100162. doi:10.1016/j.jajp.2023.100162
13.
TangYZhangYHuM, et al.Enhanced fatigue properties of pure copper welded joints in submarine cable by double-sided symmetrical oblique laser shock peening. Eng Fract Mech2025; 315: 110797.
14.
CaoRFengZChenJH. Microstructures and properties of titanium-copper lap welded joints by cold metal transfer technology. Mater Des2014; 53: 192–201.
15.
BušićMŠolićSTropšaV, et al.Influence of flux agent composition on the ionization potential in A-TIG welding of the electrolytic tough pitch copper (cu-ETP) sheets. J Mater Res Technol2024; 29: 1253–1261.
16.
PuYChenSHouY, et al.Unlocking the effect of interfacial microstructure and Desulfovibrio vulgaris on corrosion characteristics in copper-nickel alloy welded joint. Corros Sci2024; 230: 111947.
17.
MoJ, et al.Effect of cold welding on the inconsistencies and thermal safety of battery modules based on a constructed discharge model. Appl Energy2025; 377: 1–16. doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.124570.
18.
ud dinMZUmerUTiamiyuAA. Solid-state cold spray welding: Evaluation and future direction. J Adv Join ProcessNov. 2023; 8: 1–17. doi: 10.1016/j.jajp.2023.100162.
19.
NaikBMadhavanM. Design of cold metal transfer flare v-groove welds on cold-formed steel hat sections. Eng Struct2024; 305: 117704.
20.
LeeKRinkerTJTanC, et al.Unveiling the correlation between weld structure and fracture modes in laser welding of aluminum and copper using data-driven methods. J Mater Process Technol2025; 338: 118752.
21.
XuXZhaoJWangY, et al.Effects of cold rolling pre-strain on abnormal grain growth behavior in longitudinal welds of 2196 Al-Cu-Li profiles. Mater Today Commun2024; 40: 109895.
22.
DongHLiWMuW, et al.Instability monitoring of molten pool in pure copper laser welding based on a multi-scale cascade model and spatial optical signals. J Mater Process Technol2024; 333: 118581.
23.
ZhangLJZhangGFNingJ, et al.Microstructure and properties of the laser butt welded 1.5-mm thick T2 copper joint achieved at high welding speed. Mater Des2015; 88: 720–736.
24.
LillebyAGrong, HemmerH, et al.Experimental and finite element studies of the divergent extrusion process under conditions applicable to cold pressure welding of commercial purity aluminium. Mater Sci Eng A2009; 518: 76–83.
25.
ZebardastMTaheriAK. The cold welding of copper to aluminum using equal channel angular extrusion (ECAE) process. J Mater Process Technol2011; 211: 1034–1043.
26.
TangYLuLDengD, et al.Cold welding sealing of copper-water micro heat pipe ends. Trans Nonferrous Met Soc China Jun. 2009; 19: 568–574. doi:10.1016/S1003-6326(08)60314-3
27.
EbbertCSchmidtH.C.RodmanD, et al.Joining with electrochemical support (ECUF): cold pressure welding of copper. J Mater Process Technol2014; 214: 2179–2187.
28.
HuangYYanX-JRanX-L. Microstructural evolution and materials flow in butt cold welding of copper. Mater Tehnol Dec. 2020; 54: 799–805. doi:10.17222/mit.2019.286
29.
XieSWangXQuC, et al.Impacts of different wind speed simulation methods on conditional reliability indices. Int Trans Electr Energy Syst2013; 20: –6.
30.
GuptaSDwivediDKTripathyM. Creep failure analysis of crimp joints in aluminium and copper windings of distribution transformers. Eng Fail Anal2024; 156: 107845.
31.
SakaiTBelyakovAKaibyshevR, et al.Dynamic and post-dynamic recrystallization under hot, cold and severe plastic deformation conditions. Prog Mater Sci2014; 60: 130–207.
32.
LiYSTaoNRLuK. Microstructural evolution and nanostructure formation in copper during dynamic plastic deformation at cryogenic temperatures. Acta Mater2008; 56: 230–241.
33.
MaQMaJZhouJ, et al.Intrinsic dependence of welding quality and recrystallization on the surface-contacted micro-asperity scale during ultrasonic welding of Cu–Cu joints. J Mater Res Technol2022; 17: 353–364.
34.
XieJZhuYBianF, et al.Dynamic recovery and recrystallization mechanisms during ultrasonic spot welding of Al-Cu-Mg alloy. Mater Charact2017; 132: 145–155.
35.
LiWWangF. Modeling of continuous drive friction welding of mild steel. Mater Sci Eng A2011; 528: 5921–5926.
36.
CiemiorekM, et al.Characterization of ultrafine-grained copper joints acquired by rotary friction welding. Arch Civ Mech Eng2022; 22: 1–12.
37.
SchmidtHCHombergWOriveAG, et al.Joining of blanks by cold pressure welding: incremental rolling and strategies for surface activation and heat treatment. Materwiss Werksttech2019; 50: 924–939.
38.
GerlitzkyCKuhnCGrocheP, et al.3D Cold pressure welded components – from the bonding mechanisms to the production of high strength joints. Materwiss Werksttech2019; 50: 913–923.
39.
PeterNJGerlitzkyCAltinA, et al.Atomic level bonding mechanism in steel/aluminum joints produced by cold pressure welding. Materialia2019; 7: 100396.
40.
ZhangHDingHLiX, et al.A new method of magnetic pulse welding of dissimilar metal plates using a uniform pressure electromagnetic actuator based on pre-deformation. Sci Rep2024; 14: 1–16.
41.
SuZZhuZZhangY, et al.Recrystallization behavior of a pure cu connection interface with ultrasonic welding. Metals (Basel)2021; 11: 1–17.
42.
SatoYSParkSHCKokawaH. Microstructural factors governing hardness in friction-stir welds of solid-solution-hardened Al alloys. Metall Mater Trans ADec. 2001; 32: 3033–3042. doi:10.1007/s11661-001-0178-7
43.
WangXSunXSongC, et al.Evolution of microstructures and mechanical properties during solution treatment of a Ti–V–Mo-containing high-manganese cryogenic steel. Mater Charact2018; 135: 287–294.
44.
BragaVSiqueiraRHMCarvalhoSM, et al.Mechanical behavior and microstructure of a fiber laser–welded TWIP steel. Int J Adv Manuf Technol2019; 104: 1245–1250.
45.
Gutierrez-UrrutiaIZaeffererSRaabeD. The effect of grain size and grain orientation on deformation twinning in a Fe-22 wt.% Mn-0.6 wt.% C TWIP steel. Mater Sci Eng A2010; 527: 3552–3560.
46.
LanPZhangJ. Tensile property and microstructure of Fe-22Mn-0.5C TWIP steel. Mater Sci Eng A2017; 707: 373–382.
47.
ChenJtao DongFlong JiangH, et al.Influence of final rolling temperature on microstructure and mechanical properties in a hot-rolled TWIP steel for cryogenic application. Mater Sci Eng A2018; 724: 330–334.
48.
XuL, et al.Pure copper plate achieving high synergetic strength and electrical conductivity via a novel dynamic offsets and shear force adjustment cryorolling. Mater Sci Eng A2025; 941: 114185. doi:10.1016/j.msea.2025.148571
49.
XiongJZhouWWangL, et al.Cellular automata simulation of dynamic recrystallization in rotary friction welding of pure copper. Indian J Eng Mater Sci2017; 24: 377–382.
50.
LiWLiuHHouZ, et al.Effect of trace silver on the conductivity and softening temperature of high conductivity and high heat resistance pure copper. J Mater Res Technol2024; 33: 4749–4762.
51.
TaheriSFatemiA. Fatigue crack behavior in power plant residual heat removal system piping including weld residual stress effects. Int J Fatigue2017; 101: 244–252.
52.
HaradaSKobayashiYKuroshimaY, et al.Relieving of welding residual stress by applying cyclic load. Key Eng Mater2003; 243–244: 183–188. doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM.243-244.183
53.
SongWLiuXZhouG, et al.Notch energy-based low and high cycle fatigue assessment of load-carrying cruciform welded joints considering the strength mismatch. Int J Fatigue2021; 151: 106410.
54.
BanerjeePSarkarRPalTK, et al.Effect of nugget size and notch geometry on the high cycle fatigue performance of resistance spot welded DP590 steel sheets. J Mater Process Technol2016; 238: 226–243.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
