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Abstract

Kapok oil methyl ester (KOME) is used as a pilot fuel, while hydrogen and diethyl ether (DEE) are used as secondary fuels to improve the performance, emissions and combustion of a direct injection compression ignition engine. With a compression ignition engine, a slight modification to the system enables hydrogen gas through the intake manifold. A flow metre limits the quantity of energy the hydrogen may produce off, and two flame arresters prevent backfires in the fuel line. At full load and maximum hydrogen energy sharing, KOME + 20%DEE obtained a brake thermal efficiency of 30.31%, which is 14% higher than without hydrogen enrichment and about 8% higher than diesel's value (0% hydrogen energy share). The main problem with previous research is that hydrogen with a high heating value makes greater amounts of nitric oxide. Diethyl ether, on the other hand, has fixed this major problem, and the absence of carbon in hydrogen fuel lowers CO, HC and smoke emissions.

Keywords

diethyl ether additive hydrogen energy share hydrogen induction kapok oil methyl ester

Introduction

Diesel engines are the best option for heavy-duty tasks due to their high thermal efficiency and significant torque. Diesel engines, on the other hand, release harmful levels of nitrogen oxide and particulate matter into the air. Over the past two decades, a number of alternative fuels have emerged with the dual goals of reducing pollution and enhancing engine performance, such as natural gas, ethanol, acetylene, etc.^1–4 Low-temperature combustion technology is a viable option for reducing emissions of NOx, particulate matter, CO and hydroxy chlorofluorocarbons (HC).⁵ Emissions from internal combustion engines could be greatly reduced with the introduction of new, more sophisticated modes of engine operation such as premixed charge compression ignition (PCCI), homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) and reactivity regulated compression ignition (RCCI).

Kapok methyl ester (KME) is a biodiesel fuel derived from the seeds of the kapok tree. KME can be used as a substitute for petroleum-based diesel fuel in compression ignition (CI) engines. It has a high cetane number and higher oxygen content, leading to reduced emissions and improved engine efficiency.

Hydrogen is the one among the gaseous fuel that supports HCCI or PCCI mode operation in a CI engine. The advantages of hydrogen are its higher calorific value, instant combustion due to its higher diffusivity, and cleaner fuel.⁶ By burning it, it produces water vapour. On the other side, it has demerits such as a lower cetane number and overheating of the engine. The following literature is used to identify the scope for using hydrogen with kapok oil methyl ester (KOME). Diethyl ether (DEE) is a fuel additive used in CI engines to improve their performance. It has a high cetane number and can improve the engine's ignition quality, leading to increased engine power and efficiency. However, it is highly flammable, difficult to handle safely, and may not be cost-effective.

Incorporating hydrogen at two different rates (10 LPM and 13 LPM) into honge biodiesel blends increased the brake thermal efficiency (BTE) while decreasing fuel consumption. Hydrogen-enriched blends reduce carbon monoxide by 21% and unburned hydrocarbons by 24% due to hydrogen's absence of carbon and better combustion. Better performance is achieved with higher cetane numbers because of the shorter ignition delay they provide. Because of the long chain of hydrocarbon groups in biodiesel and hydrogen mixes, their cetane values are often higher than those of pure diesel fuel. At the same time, the energy content of the fuel has an effect on the efficiency of the CI engine.⁷

One of the oxygenated additions that increases the base fuel's cetane number is diethyl ether, and it has a higher cetane number than the alcohol group of additives. The most noticeable advantages of the DEE and biofuel combination are its sufficient energy density and a high cetane number. Given its high cetane number, adequate energy density, high oxygen content, low temperature of potential spontaneous ignition, prolonged combustibility constraints, and high degree of fuel solubility, DEE is an excellent choice for fuel mixes. It has a low degree of lubricity, a high rate of evaporation, and a predisposition to peroxide while kept. Over the past few decades, it has been studied by a range of specialists, and the possibility of using it as an additive to petroleum has grown. CO, HC, NO, and smoke were released less when biodiesel was used in a CI engine.⁸

Dhanasekaran and collegues⁹ used a 3.5 kW CI engine that operated on both diesel and hydrogen, as the fuels to investigate the effect of DEE as an ignition enhancer. In addition to diesel in the primary injections, they asserted when DEE and hydrogen are added to the air intake manifold, would improve combustion and lower NOx emissions for the 0.00142 g/m of DEE injections and 7 LPM of hydrogen induction. Due to increased combustion efficiency, this might be conceivable. Barik and Debabrata,¹⁰ and a number of other researchers looked into the effects of operating a 4.4-kilowatt CI engine on a dual-fuel mixture of biogas and methyl ester from karanja oil combined with diesel. According to their findings, 4% DEE injection makes the air intake manifold work better, which enhances BTE, CO and NOx.

In order to ascertain how the employment of DEE expansion as cetane enhancers affected the performance of a 5.2 kW CI engine running on LPG and petrol in dual-fuel mode (Vinoth et al.¹¹ conducted the study). They claim that by adding DEE, CO and NOx emissions are reduced and combustion is improved. Barik et al.¹² used a dual-fuel mode in a 4.4 kW CI engine, burning biogas with karanja oil methyl ester and examining the contribution DEE (the primary injection fuel) made (6% by volume). On the basis of the advantages they observed in the BTE, brake specific fuel consumption, CO and HC levels, they came to the conclusion that the ideal compression ratio was 18.5. The effectiveness of a CI engine that ran in dual-fuel mode and used palm kernel oil methyl ester and LPG as fuels was studied by the researchers.¹³ They promise that adding DEE will concurrently raise NOx emissions while lowering BTE levels. Natesan et al.'s¹⁴ study examined the performance of diesel, compressed natural gas, and DEE in dual-fuel mode using a 3.7 kW CI engine. According to previously published studies, it should be a top priority to promote widespread usage of DEE in dual-fuel mode selection in CI engines. DEE can be added to the pilot fuel to solve the issue caused by a decreased cetane number.

Hydrogen fuel was growing in fame as a fuel for CI engines, although its full potential is not yet being used. Diesel and hydrogen fuel blends, as well as hydrogen-blended diesel, are a common source of concern in the literature. Hydrogen's effect on CI engine performance, when used in synergy with clean biofuels, has likely been the subject of less attention in the published literature. In-depth research on the fuel qualities of hydrogen, kapok oil and DEE was required due to their apparent differences from conventional petroleum, diesel and ethanol in a CI engine. The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of a dual-fuel injection strategy with KOME on the performance, combustion, and emissions of a direct injection (DI) engine. The pilot fuel consists of KOME, KOME DEE blend and hydrogen gas injected through the input manifold as a secondary fuel. The gaseous hydrogen fuel's high heating value and lack of carbon particles potentially resulted in improved performance and reduced CO, CO₂, and smoke emissions. Due to the high heating value of H₂ and the high temperatures reached during burning, nitrogen oxides are produced. It's a high-octane fuel that may be added to a diesel engine to increase efficiency and cut down on diesel consumption.

Materials and methods

The KME oil used in the study is available locally in Chennai, Tamil Nada. Using a bomb calorimeter, a hydrometer, a viscometer made of redwood and an open cup cleave land equipment, researchers were able to estimate the calorific value, density, viscosity, and flash point of the fuel. Table 1 displays the measured property values of the evaluated fuels. A computerised engine with four strokes, natural aspiration, water cooling and an eddy current dynamometer was used for the investigation. Table 2 displays the engine's specifications.

Table 1.

Properties of diesel, kapok oil, diethyl ether and hydrogen.

Parameters	KOME100	Diesel	Diethyl ether	Hydrogen
Density at 35°C (kg/m³)	860	830	713	0.08
Kinematic viscosity at 4° C in cSt	4.2	2.5	0.33	-
Calorific value (MJ/kg)	39.4	42.5	33.2	120
Cetane number	51	50	<125	-

Table 2.

Specification of the engine.

Make and model	Kirloskar TV1
Details	Single cylinder four strokes, direct injection, water cooled, compression
Ignition bore and stroke	87.5 mm and110 mm
Compression ratio	17.5:1
Rated power	5.2 kW 1500 rpm
Loading device	Eddy current dynamometer

In order to reach a steady state, the engine was allowed to function for 30 minutes at a constant speed of 1500 revolutions per minute (rpm). Diesel, KOME100, and KOME100 + 20% DEE are used as pilot fuel. Hydrogen was also slowly introduced into the engine's manifold while it was running at full power and steady speed. When 12 LPM of hydrogen was injected into the engine, a variety of sounds were heard, with abnormalities in the engine's performance.^6,15–17 As a direct consequence of this, the highest hydrogen induction rate could only reach 10 LPM. The subsequent test matrix will include the incorporation of 20% DEE with KOME100, in addition to the induction of hydrogen at 10 LPM. The engine's emissions were recorded using the AVL gas analyzer 444N and smoke metre 437C. The experiment was performed five times on different days, and the average value was obtained that was presented in the manuscript. Figure 1 represents the pictorial experimental setup.

Figure 1.

Experimental setup.

Uncertainty of the experiment

Uncertainty analysis can be used to confirm the accuracy of the experiments. The accuracy of measuring airflow, load, speed and fuel flow is evaluated. The linearised approximation method estimates the unpredictability of all parameters and determines the range analysis for each parameter in Table 3.

\begin{aligned} T o t a l u n c e r t a n i t y o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t = \sqrt{L o a d^{2} + S p e e d^{2} + B u r e t t e f u e l^{2} + C O^{2} + N O x^{2} + C O_{2}^{2} + H C^{2} + S m o k e^{2}} \\ T o t a l u n c e r t a n i t y o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t = \sqrt{{0.2}^{2} + {0.1}^{2} + 1^{2} + {0.2}^{2} + 1^{2} + {0.15}^{2} + {0.02}^{2} + 1^{2}} = \pm 1.44 % \end{aligned}

Table 3.

Uncertainty of various instruments.

Description	Accuracy	Uncertainty
Load	±0.1 kg	±0.2%
Speed	±10 rpm	±0.1%
Manometer	±1 mm	±1%
CO	±0.02%	±0.2%
NOx	±10 ppm	±1%
CO₂	±0.3%	±0.15%
HC	±20 ppm	±0.02%
Smoke	±1% Opacity	±1%

Hydrogen energy share

The use of alternative fuel in internal combustion engines offers a number of potential benefits. Figure 2 illustrates the proportion of total energy that may be gained from varying hydrogen flow rates under a variety of different loading conditions, that is, hydrogen energy ratio (ratio of energy produced by hydrogen to that of total fuel). A maximum of around 14.5% of the energy share for 8 LPM of hydrogen fuel can be achieved in a situation with a maximum load and 12.5% of hydrogen share for 10 LPM of hydrogen fuel, whereas for DEE blended fuel, hydrogen energy share is around 11.85%. Figure 2 explains clearly that increase in load invite more hydrogen energy whereas presence of DEE in fuel decreases the hydrogen energy share.

Figure 2.

Hydrogen energy share versus brake power. DEE: diethyl ether; KOME: kapok oil methyl ester.

Result and discussion

Brake thermal efficiency

Figure 3 explains BTE in response to brake power. Due to DEE's greater cetane than KOME, KOME100 + 10LPM + 20% DEE has a better thermal efficiency of 30.31% under full load condition, and it is around 12.8% greater than KOME100. Hydrogen induction and DEE blended in pilot fuel are the main reason for the increase in BTE. The induction of hydrogen to the intake manifold of the CI engine operating on karanja oil and rice bran biodiesel boosted brake thermal efficiency,^18,19 and also, it is observed that raising the intake manifold hydrogen produced enhanced brake thermal efficiency^20,21 whereas it is found lower thermal efficiency in premixed combustion because hydrogen depletes oxygen reserves and makes diffusion combustion problematic.²² Biofuel has oxygen, which enhances performance, but its lower heating value causes a fast temperature decrease during combustion, which distorts the heat release rate (HRR) curve. Hydrogen induction in the intake manifold raises BTE for all mixes. Hydrogen–air combination enhanced pilot fuel combustion flame velocity and isomerisation, and also Figure 3 shows clearly that introducing hydrogen enhances the BTE, which improves the combustion parameters and the temperature within the cylinder. It also raises the injection temperature, which makes the ignition delay shorter.

Figure 3.

Brake thermal efficiency versus brake power. DEE: diethyl ether; KOME: kapok oil methyl ester.

Brake-specific energy consumption

Figure 4 shows brake-specific energy consumption versus brake power. KOME100 brake specific energy consumption (BSEC) is higher than diesel because KME has a lower calorific value and indigent physical properties. At maximum load, hydrogen induction (8 and 10 LPM) lowers the BSEC by 6.5%, 8.5% compared to KOME100. The same pattern is proved in various articles.^23–25 And 20% DEE blended fuel future lowers the BSEC by around 12.9% compared to KOME100. This is mainly due to improved combustion characteristics that may be achieved by adding DEE to the pilot fuel, as it has a tendency to improve diffusivity and hence facilitate the use of the optimum amount of air, hydrogen and biofuel. The study showed that hydrogen induction at 8 to 10 LPM decreased BSEC, whereas the addition of DEE (20% vol) in the pilot fuel showed positive improvement, which is also reflected in BTE. However, because of the high density, additional fuel will be injected due to hydrogen enrichment in the intake air, leading to increasing the BSEC.^7,26

Figure 4.

Brake-specific energy consumption versus brake power. DEE: diethyl ether; KOME: kapok oil methyl ester.

Emission characteristics

Oxide of nitrogen

Figure 5 displays NOx emissions versus brake power. The combustion temperature, pressure, oxygen and time determine NOx generation in CI engine.^27,28 The induction of hydrogen with increased heating value and flame temperature increases NO generation.^29,30 KOME + 10LPM had the highest NO emissions due to increased combustion chamber turbulence because hydrogen has six times higher heating value than diesel. Hydrogen's greater heating value and extra oxygen in biofuel raise in-cylinder temperature and pressure, which increases NO emission.^9,21 DEE at 20% with KOME + 10LPM H₂ decreases NO emissions, which is the better solution to overcome the drawback of hydrogen induction without involving any post-treatment in the exhaust. At full load, NO emissions for diesel, KOME100, KOME100 + 8LPM H₂, KOME100 + 10LPM H₂ and KOME100 + 10LPM H₂+ 20%DEE are 1698, 1466, 1752, 1827 and 1890 ppm, respectively. From the result, the hydrogen induction 10 LPM with KOME100 fuel increases the NO emission around 3.08% compared to diesel fuel, and also the addition of DEE in the pilot fuel represents the increased NO emission around 10.1% compare to diesel fuel. Due to addition of hydrogen and DEE, in-cylinder temperature increases because of enhanced combustion so that NOx emission is also increased.

Figure 5.

Nitrogen oxide (NOx) versus brake power. DEE: diethyl ether; KOME: kapok oil methyl ester.

Carbon monoxide emission

Figure 6 shows that CO and BP are compared in this article for diesel, KOME100 and KOME100 + 20%DEE with various hydrogen flows. At full load, the CO emissions for diesel, KOME100, KOME + 8LPM H₂, KOME + 10LPM H₂ and KOME + 10LPM H₂+ 20%DEE are 0.46, 0.55, 0.43, 0.4 and 0.35%vol, respectively. The reduction of the CO emission for KOME + 10LPM H₂+ 20%DEE is mainly due to the complete combustion made because of improved cetane number of DEE and high heating value of hydrogen. Hydrogen and biodiesel mixed diesel pilot injection technique reduced CO emissions.^31,32 The CO emissions for KOME + 10LPM + 20%DEE is around a 22% decrease compared to diesel. The result proved the above literature.

Figure 6.

Carbon monoxide (CO) versus brake power. DEE: diethyl ether; KOME: kapok oil methyl ester.

Hydrocarbon emission

Figure 7 shows hydrocarbon emission versus brake power. The hydrocarbon emissions for diesel, KOME100, KOME100 + 8LPM H₂, KOME100 + 10LPM H₂ and KOME100 + 10LPM H₂+ 20%DEE are 120, 128, 111, 100 and 85 ppm, respectively. KMOE100 has higher HC emissions than diesel at all load situations owing to their high viscosity and density from ineffective air–fuel cooperation and fragmented ignite.³³ The ignition temperature decreases, avoiding hydrocarbon oxidation.^21,34 Inefficient flame generation due to high viscosity increases HC emissions, and this is overcome by the addition of DEE blended fuel, which represents the lowest HC emission value of around 29.1% compared to diesel fuel, and also it is mainly due to higher heating value and wide range of flammable limits of hydrogen, which increases the rate of pressure rise and proper combustion Xia et al.³⁵ found that inducting hydrogen with biofuel in main injection reduced HC carbon emissions owing to post-flame reaction hydrogen and carbon atoms with oxygen.³⁶

Figure 7.

Hydrocarbon emission versus brake power. DEE: diethyl ether; KOME: kapok oil methyl ester.

Smoke emission

Figure 8 shows emissions of smoke are depending on the H/C ratio, diffused combustion oxygen, and duration. At full load, KMOE100 + 10LPM H₂+ 20%DEE seemed to have the minimum smoke emission at 70.8%, which is around a 13.44% decrease compared to diesel. This happens due to the addition of DEE in pilot fuel which enhanced oxygen follows strong combustion qualities, and also due to increased diffusivity and homogeneity, hydrogen induction at 8 and 10 LPM is 7.09%, and 9% lower than diesel at full load.^37–39 Hydrogen reduces smoke emissions in biodiesel-blended diesel, according to Vijayaragavan et al.³¹

Figure 8.

Smoke emission versus brake power. DEE: diethyl ether; KOME: kapok oil methyl ester.

Combustion characteristics

Peak pressure and heat release rate

Figure 9 shows kapok oil's peak pressure versus crank angle with DEE blended fuel with hydrogen induction. From Figure 9 the peak pressure for diesel, KOME100, KOME100 + 8LPM H₂, KOME100 + 10LPM H₂ and KOME100 + 10LPM H₂+ 20%DEE are 72.56, 54.42, 70.8, 73.71 and 73.89 bar, respectively. It was observed that an increase in the amount of hydrogen inductions was exactly proportional to an increase in the pressure within the cylinder. Because of this, the accumulated fuels are burned during the premixed combustions of KOME100, KOME100 + 8LPM H₂ and KOME100 + 10LPM H₂. This results in a higher in-cylinder combustion chamber temperature, which in turn leads to higher NO emissions and lower smoke emissions due to a reduction in the duration of diffused combustion. In a CI engine that was powered by diesel fuel, Serrano et al.⁴⁰ showed that the in-cylinder pressure rises when the hydrogen induction was increased.^20,41 When compared to diesel KOME100 + 10LPM H₂+ 20%DEE and KOME100 + 10LPM H₂ was shown the increased in-cylinder peak pressure of around 1.8% and 1.5% higher, respectively. The addition of 20% DEE in the pilot fuel and during 10 LPM hydrogen induction follows the same pattern as diesel.

Figure 9.

Kapok oil's peak pressure versus crank angle at full load. DEE: diethyl ether; KOME: kapok oil methyl ester.

Figure 10 shows HRR for kapok oil and kapok oil blended DEE with hydrogen induction. From Figure 10, the HRR for diesel, KOME100, KOME100 + 8LPM H₂, KOME100 + 10LPM H₂ and KOME100 + 10LPM H₂+ 20%DEE are 31.73, 30.90, 33.93, 34.63 and 36.02 J/^oCA, respectively. The preparation of the indigent fuel during combustion is the cause of the decreased HRR achieved by KOME100 compared to diesel. Because KOME100 has a lower heating value and higher viscosity and density, the preparation of fuel is impacted by these characteristics. It is clear from Figure 10 that the HRR increased while hydrogen was being induced into the system due to hydrogen having a higher flame velocity. This is because hydrogen produces a faster flame. The increased HRR that occurs during the premixed combustion phase leads to a rise in temperature inside the combustion chamber, which in turn results in an increase in the amount of NO emissions.⁴² The same pattern is followed for the DEE blended fuel throughout the combustion process.

Figure 10.

HRR for kapok oil and kapok oil blended DEE with hydrogen induction. DEE: diethyl ether; HRR: heat release rate; KOME: Kapok oil methyl ester.

Cumulative heat release rate

Figure 11 shows that hydrogen in the induction manifold raises the cylinder's maximum temperature. As a result, more fuel is burned in premixed combustion as opposed to diffused combustion, due to the interaction between the KOME100's lower cetane number and the hydrogen's increased flame velocity. With each additional 20% addition of DEE, the maximum temperature inside the cylinder increases. A similar pattern was observed for KOME + 10LPM H₂ + 20%DEE compared to other examined conditions.

Figure 11.

CHRR for kapok oil and kapok oil blended DEE with hydrogen induction. CHRR: cumulative heat release rate; DEE: diethyl ether; KOME: kapok oil methyl ester.

Conclusion

This dual-fuel study investigates plain KME combined with DEE and hydrogen induction as secondary fuel. Kapok oil and DEE–kapok oil blended pilot fuel are used to evaluate hydrogen energy substitution in a dual-fuel DI diesel engine.

Due to premixed combustion, hydrogen induction in dual-fuel mode increases BTE for all load circumstances. KOME + 10LPM H₂+ 20%DEE mix BTE at full load outperforms neat diesel with 0% hydrogen share.

KOME + 10LPM H₂ + 20%DEE emits more NOx than diesel. NOx emissions are 10.1% higher than diesel. KOME + 10LPM H₂ + 20%DEE emits 22% less CO and 29.1% less than diesel. KOME + 10LPM H₂ + 20%DEE has 1.8% higher peak pressure than diesel.

KOME + 10LPM H₂ + 20%DEE emits 13.44% less smoke than diesel. KOME + 10LPM H₂ + 20%DEE has 1.8% higher peak pressure than diesel.

Before using this blend as diesel engine fuel, many cautious studies should be done. Long-term durability and stamina should be thoroughly explored.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iDs

G Kasiraman

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Hydrogen influence on kapok methyl ester blended with DEE as an alternate fuel in CI engine

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Materials and methods

Uncertainty of the experiment

Hydrogen energy share

Result and discussion

Brake thermal efficiency

Brake-specific energy consumption

Emission characteristics

Oxide of nitrogen

Carbon monoxide emission

Hydrocarbon emission

Smoke emission

Combustion characteristics

Peak pressure and heat release rate

Cumulative heat release rate

Conclusion

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

Funding

ORCID iDs

References