This study investigates electrode coatings designed for use in nuclear power plant weld joints, particularly their electrical, thermophysical and physicochemical properties. The Al2O3-CaF2-CaO-SrO-based shielded metal arc welding electrodes were developed using the extreme vertices design technique. The coating composition's structure and phases were analyzed using X-ray diffraction, while Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis was used to identify the types of bonds present. Advanced characterization methods were utilized to assess the coating formulations’ physicochemical, thermophysical and structural aspects. Thermal properties, including specific heat, thermal diffusivity and conductivity, were evaluated using a hot disk apparatus, while thermogravimetric analysis was employed to determine the enthalpy change and thermal stability of the flux coating. The electrical properties of the flux coatings were examined using a precision LCR instrument. Statistical analysis was employed to create regression models for each coating property to investigate the influence of mineral constituents on the flux coating properties. Regression analysis is a statistical method used to establish a relationship between mineral interactions. In flux composition selection, it can help determine the physical significance of each factor and its relationship with the coating's performance. The results indicate that the mineral constituents’ individual elements, binary and tertiary interactions, significantly impact the flux composition's physicochemical, electrical and thermophysical properties.
Fernández-AriasPVergaraDOrosaJA. A global review of PWR nuclear power plants. Appl Sci2020; 10: 1–28.
2.
RaghuvanshiSPChandraARaghavAK. Carbon dioxide emissions from coal based power generation in India. Energy Convers Manag2006; 47: 427–441.
3.
Al-MulaliU. Investigating the impact of nuclear energy consumption on GDP growth and CO2 emission: a panel data analysis. Prog Nucl Energy2014; 73: 172–178.
4.
AdamantiadesAKessidesI. Nuclear power for sustainable development: current status and future prospects. Energy Policy2009; 37: 5149–5166.
5.
JimenezGFloresJM. Reducing the CO2 emissions and the energy dependence of a large city area with zero-emission vehicles and nuclear energy. Prog Nucl Energy2014; 78: 396–403.
6.
DanishOBUlucakR. An empirical investigation of nuclear energy consumption and carbon dioxide (CO2) emission in India: bridging IPAT and EKC hypotheses. Nucl Eng Technol2021; 53: 2056–2065.
7.
Hassan ST, Baloch MA and Tarar ZH Is nuclear energy a better alternative for mitigating CO2 emissions in BRICS countries? An empirical analysis. Nucl Eng Technol2020; 52: 2969–2974.
8.
SaidiKOmriA. Reducing CO2 emissions in OECD countries: do renewable and nuclear energy matter?Prog Nucl Energy 2020; 126: 103425.
9.
AkhmatGZamanKShukuiT, et al.The challenges of reducing greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution through energy sources: evidence from a panel of developed countries. Environ Sci Pollut Res2014; 21: 7425–7435.
10.
FioreK. Nuclear energy and sustainability: understanding ITER. Energy Policy2006; 34: 3334–3341.
11.
MahajanSChhibberR. Investigations on dissimilar welding of P91/SS304L using nickel-based electrodes. Mater Manuf Process2020; 35: 1010–1023.
12.
ChhibberRAroraNGuptaSR, et al.Use of bimetallic welds in nuclear reactors: associated problems and structural integrity assessment issues. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part C J Mech Eng Sci2006; 220: 1121–1133.
13.
TaylorNFaidyCGillesP. Assessment of dissimilar weld integrity: final report of the NESC-III project. Institute for Energy and Transportation, Petten, Netherlands, Report No EUR, 225102006: 1–126.
14.
ZhangJYuLMaZ, et al.Characterization of microstructure and stress corrosion cracking susceptibility in a multi-pass austenitic stainless steel weld joint by narrow-gap TIG. Metall Mater Trans A2020; 51: 4549–4562.
15.
MauryaAKPandeyCChhibberR. Dissimilar welding of duplex stainless steel with Ni alloys: a review. Int J Press Vessel Pip2021; 192: 104439.
16.
XieYWuYBurnsJ, et al.Characterization of stress corrosion cracks in Ni-based weld alloys 52, 52 M and 152 grown in high-temperature water. Mater Charact2016; 112: 87–97.
17.
ChungW-CHuangJ-YTsayL-W, et al.Microstructure and stress corrosion cracking behavior of the weld metal in alloy 52-A508 dissimilar welds. Mater Trans2011; 52: 12–19.
18.
JangCChoP-YKimM, et al.Effects of microstructure and residual stress on fatigue crack growth of stainless steel narrow gap welds. Mater Des2010; 31: 1862–1870.
19.
JosephARaiSKJayakumarT, et al.Evaluation of residual stresses in dissimilar weld joints. Int J Press Vessel Pip2005; 82: 700–705.
20.
SeifertHPRitterSShojiT, et al.Environmentally-assisted cracking behaviour in the transition region of an Alloy182/SA 508 Cl.2 dissimilar metal weld joint in simulated boiling water reactor normal water chemistry environment. J Nucl Mater2008; 378: 197–210.
21.
BhaduriAKVenkadesanSRodriguezP, et al.Transition metal joints for steam generators—an overview. Int J Press Vessel Pip1994; 58: 251–265.
22.
AndersonDH. A simple test for nonidentifiability. Compartmental Modeling and Tracer Kinetics 1983: 126–145.
23.
SireeshaMShankarVAlbertSK, et al.Microstructural features of dissimilar welds between 316LN austenitic stainless steel and alloy 800. Mater Sci Eng A2000; 292: 74–82.
24.
CelikAAlsaranA. Mechanical and structural properties of similar and dissimilar steel joints. Mater Charact1999; 43: 311–318.
25.
WuQXuQJiangY, et al.Effect of carbon migration on mechanical properties of dissimilar weld joint. Eng Fail Anal2020; 117: 104935.
26.
GuptaASinghJChhibberR. Dissimilar welding of austenitic and ferritic steels using nickel and stainless-steel filler: associated issues. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part E J Process Mech Eng2023: 095440892311597.
27.
RathodDWPandeySSinghPK, et al.Mechanical properties variations and comparative analysis of dissimilar metal pipe welds in pressure vessel system of nuclear plants. J Press Vessel Technol2016; 138: 1–9.
28.
RathodDWPandeySAravindanS, et al.Diffusion control and metallurgical behavior of successive buttering on SA508 steel using Ni–Fe alloy and Inconel 182. Metallogr Microstruct Anal2016; 5: 450–460.
29.
RathodDWPandeySSinghPK, et al.Experimental analysis of dissimilar metal weld joint: ferritic to austenitic stainless steel. Mater Sci Eng A2015; 639: 259–268.
30.
RathodDWSharmaSKPandeyS. Hot cracking susceptibility: an effect of solidification modes of SS consumables during bimetallic welds. In: Optimization methods in engineering: select proceedings of CPIE. Singapore: Springer, 2021, pp.537–547.
31.
DakGPandeyC. A critical review on dissimilar welds joint between martensitic and austenitic steel for power plant application. J Manuf Process2020; 58: 377–406.
32.
KimJWLeeKKimJS, et al.Local mechanical properties of alloy 82/182 dissimilar weld joint between SA508 Gr.1a and F316 SS at RT and 320°C. J Nucl Mater2009; 384: 212–221.
33.
KimM-CParkS-GLeeBS, et al.Comparison on mechanical properties of SA508 Gr.3 Cl.1, Cl.2, and Gr.4N low alloy steels for pressure vessels. Trans Korean Nucl Soc2014: 30–31.
34.
RavikiranKDasGKumarS, et al.Narrow gap welding of low alloy and austenitic stainless steels using different Inconel alloys: comparison of microstructure and properties. Mater Res Express2019; 6: 096518.
35.
RavikiranKDasGKumarS, et al.Evaluation of microstructure at interfaces of welded joint between low alloy steel and stainless steel. Metall Mater Trans A2019; 50: 2784–2797.
36.
KhanWNChhibberR. Physicochemical and thermo physical characterization of CaO–CaF2–SiO2 and CaO–TiO2–SiO2 based electrode coating for offshore welds. Ceram Int2020; 46: 8601–8614.
37.
MahajanSChhibberR. Design and development of shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) electrode coatings using a CaO-CaF2-SiO2 and CaO-SiO2-Al2O3 flux system. JOM2019; 71: 2435–2444.
38.
BhandariDChhibberRAroraN, et al.Investigations on weld metal chemistry and mechanical behaviour of bimetallic welds using CaO–CaF2–SiO2–Ni based electrode coatings. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part L J Mater Des Appl2019; 233: 563–579.
39.
KhanWNChhibberR. Physicochemical and thermo physical characterization of CaO–CaF2–SiO2 and CaO–TiO2–SiO2 based electrode coating for offshore welds. Ceram Int2020; 46: 8601–8614.
40.
WangHQinRHeG. Sio2 and CaF2 behavior during shielded metal arc welding and their effect on slag detachability of the CaO-CaF2-SiO2 type ENiCrFe-7-covered electrode. Metall Mater Trans A Phys Metall Mater Sci2016; 47: 4530–4542.
41.
EagarTW. Sources of weld metal oxygen contamination during submerged arc welding. Weld J1978; 57.
42.
KimJHFrostRHOlsonDL, et al.Effect of electrochemical reactions on submerged arc weld metal composition. Weld J 1990; 69: 446–453.
43.
SharmaLChhibberR. Investigations of thermophysical properties of submerged arc welding slag using a rutile-acidic flux system. CIRP J Manuf Sci Technol2020; 31: 322–333.
44.
KumarVKumarJChhibberR, et al.Experimental study on wettability at high-temperature using TiO2-SiO2-CaO-Na3AlF6 based electrode coating for AUSC thermal power plant. 2022: 1–13. DOI: 10.1007/s12633-022-01824-2.
45.
KhanWNChhibberR. Investigations on effect of CaO-CaF2-TiO2-SiO2 based electrode coating constituents and their interactions on weld chemistry. Ceram Int2021; 47: 12483–12493.
46.
MahajanSChhibberR. Investigation on slags of CaO-CaF2-SiO2-Al2O3 based electrode coatings developed for power plant welds. Ceram Int2020; 46: 8774–8786.
47.
KumarVChhibberR. Physicochemical and thermophysical properties of CaO–TiO2–SiO2–Na3AlF6 system based electrode coating for AUSC power plant. Ceram Int2022; 48: 17412–17424.
48.
MahajanSSharmaLChhibberR.Effect of CaO-CaF2-SiO2-Al2O3 based electrode coating constituents and their interactions on the P22 alloy SMAW dissimilar weld metal delta quantities. Silicon 2022: 1–13. DOI: 10.1007/s12633-022-01937-8.
49.
OmiogbemiIMBPandeySYawasDS, et al.Effect of welding conditions and flux compositions on the metallurgy of welded duplex stainless steel. Mater Today Proc2022; 49: 1162–1168.
50.
NatalieCAOlsonDLBlanderM. Physical and chemical behavior of welding fluxes. Annu Rev Mater Sci1986; 161: 389–413.
51.
QinRHeG. Mass transfer of nickel-base alloy covered electrode during shielded metal arc welding. Metall Mater Trans A Phys Metall Mater Sci2013; 44: 1475–1484.
52.
ErikssonGPeltonAD. Critical evaluation and optimization of the thermodynamic properties and phase diagrams of the CaO-Al2O3, Al2O3-SiO2, and CaO-Al2O3-SiO2 systems. Metall Trans B1993; 24: 807–816.
53.
SridharSMillsKCAfrangeODC, et al.Break temperatures of mould fluxes and their relevance to continuous casting. Ironmak Steelmak2000; 27: 238–242.
54.
KanjilalPPalTKMajumdarSK. Combined effect of flux and welding parameters on chemical composition and mechanical properties of submerged arc weld metal. J Mater Process Technol2006; 171: 223–231.
55.
DeVriesRCRoyROsbornEF. Phase equilibria in the system SiO2-ZnO-Al2O3. Bur Stand J Res1955; 38: 158–171.
56.
KhanWNChhibberR. Characterization of CaO-CaF2-TiO2-SiO2 based welding slags for physicochemical and thermophysical properties. Silicon2021; 13: 1575–1589.
57.
KumarASharmaLChhibberR.Investigation and modeling of the SMAW coating flux thermal properties using neural network and regression analysis. Ceram Int. 2023; 49: 17753–17765.
58.
KumarASharmaLChhibberR. Wettability studies of formulated SMAW electrode coating fluxes with regression analysis and neural network approach. Ceram Int2023; 49: 10224–10237.
59.
KumarVKumarJChhibberR, et al.Investigation on CaO-SiO2-CaF2-SrO based electrode coating system on high-temperature wettability and structural behaviour for power plants welds. Silicon. 2023; 15: 1933-1946.
60.
KumarVChhibberRSharmaL. Investigation on thermophysical and physicochemical properties of CaO-SiO2-CaF2-22.5%TiO2 silica based electrode coating system. Silicon 2023; 15: 739–753.
61.
KumarVChhibberR. Experimental investigation on SMAW electrode coatings developed using CaO–SiO2–CaF2–SrO based coating system. Ceram Int2022; 48: 28730–28738.
62.
ShamKLiuS. Flux-coating development for SMAW consumable electrode of high-nickel alloys. Weld J 2014; 93: 271s–281s.
63.
GuptaASinghJChhibberR.Investigation of thermophysical and physicochemical characteristics of Al2O3-SiO2-CaO-Na3AlF6 flux for SMAW electrode coating. Silicon 2022: 1–15. DOI: 10.1007/s12633-022-02258-6.
64.
KumarASharmaLChhibberR. Wettability studies of formulated SMAW electrode coating fluxes with regression analysis and neural network approach. Ceram Int2022; 49: 10224–10237.
65.
MolledaFMoraJMolledaJR, et al.The importance of spatter formed in shielded metal arc welding. Mater Charact2007; 58: 936–940.
66.
CoronadoMSegadãesAMAndrésA. Combining mixture design of experiments with phase diagrams in the evaluation of structural ceramics containing foundry by-products. Appl Clay Sci2014; 101: 390–400.
67.
MuthukumarMMohanD. Optimization of mechanical properties of polymer concrete and mix design recommendation based on design of experiments. J Appl Polym Sci2004; 94: 1107–1116.
68.
MishraSSharmaLChhibberR.Experimental investigation on thermo-physical behavior of basic electrode coatings for offshore applications. Silicon. 2023: 1–17. DOI: 10.1007/s12633-023-02291-z.
69.
GhafariECostaHJúlioE. Statistical mixture design approach for eco-efficient UHPC. Cem Concr Compos2015; 55: 17–25.
70.
McLeanRAAndersonVL. Extreme vertices design of mixture experiments. Technometrics1966; 8: 447–454.
71.
BhandariDChhibberRAroraN, et al.Investigation of TiO2–SiO2–CaO–CaF2 based electrode coatings on weld metal chemistry and mechanical behaviour of bimetallic welds. J Manuf Process 2016; 23: 61–74.
72.
WroblewskiKFieldsJFraleyJ, et al.Quick determination of total fluoride in electroslag refining fluxes. TMS (The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society)2009: 303–307.
73.
GaraiMSasmalNMollaAR, et al.Effects of nucleating agents on crystallization and microstructure of fluorophlogopite mica-containing glass-ceramics. J Mater Sci2014; 49: 1612–1623.
74.
SowmyaTSankaranarayananSR. Spectroscopic analysis of slags—preliminary observations. In: VII Int Conf Molten Slags Fluxes Salts. The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 2004.
75.
KaurGKumarMAroraA, et al.Influence of Y2O3 on structural and optical properties of SiO2-BaO-ZnO-xB2O3-(10-x) Y 2O3 glasses and glass ceramics. J Non Cryst Solids2011; 357: 858–863.
76.
ChenYFurmannAMastalerzM, et al.Quantitative analysis of shales by KBr-FTIR and micro-FTIR. Fuel2014; 116: 538–549.
77.
WangZGZuXTXiangX. Preparation and characterization of polymer/inorganic nanoparticle composites through electron irradiation. J Mater Sci2006; 41: 1973–1978.
78.
ZhangYCoetseeTYangH, et al.Structural roles of TiO2 in CaF2-SiO2-CaO-TiO2 submerged arc welding fluxes. Metall Mater Trans B2020; 51: 1947–1952.
79.
ParkJHMinDJSongHS. Structural investigation of CaO-Al2O3 and CaO-Al2O3-CaF2 slags via Fourier transform infrared Spectra. ISIJ Int2002; 42: 38–43.
80.
Abdel-karimAMSalamaAHHassanML. Electrical conductivity and dielectric properties of nanofibrillated cellulose thin films from bagasse. J Phys Org Chem2018; 31: 1–9.
81.
BondarenkoOPLychkoIILankinYN, et al.Effect of chemical composition of the slag on consumable electrode penetration into the slag pool. Weld Int1988; 2: 6–8.
82.
BunnellDELiuSOlsonDL. Low hydrogen SMAW electrode moisture content determination using electrical capacitance. J Mater Eng1990; 12: 159–165.
83.
JinXAliM. Simple empirical formulas to estimate the dielectric constant and conductivity of concrete. Microw Opt Technol Lett2019; 61: 386–390.
84.
FellnerPMatiašovskýK. Chemical reactions in molten Na3AlF6-Si02-A1203-A1F3 mixtures. Inst Inorg Chem Slovak Acad Sci 809 34 Bratislava1973; 27: 737–741.
85.
KerstanMMüllerMRüsselC. Binary, ternary and quaternary silicates of CaO, BaO and ZnO in high thermal expansion seals for solid oxide fuel cells studied by high-temperature X-ray diffraction (HT-XRD). Mater Res Bull2011; 46: 2456–2463.
86.
MillsK. The estimation of slag properties. South Afr Pyrometallurgy 2011; 7: 35–42.
87.
KangYLeeJMoritaK. Thermal conductivity of molten slags: a review of measurement techniques and discussion based on microstructural analysis. ISIJ Int2014; 54: 2008–2016.
88.
ChihoWShunhuaX. Electrical conductivity of molten slags of CaF2+Al2O3 and CaF2+Al2O3+CaO systems for ESR. ISIJ Int1993; 33: 239–244.
89.
JiaoQThemelisNJ. Correlations of electrical conductivity to slag composition and temperature. Metall Trans B1988; 19: 133–140.
90.
HendiAA. Structure, electrical conductivity and dielectric properties of bulk, 2-amino-(4,5-diphenylfuran-3-carbonitrile). Life Sci J2011; 8: 554–559.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
