Ultrasonic testing procedures are among the most extensively used techniques in non-destructive testing and non-destructive evaluation systems. Meanwhile, phased array inspection or phased-array ultrasonic testing techniques as a well-known type of ultrasonic testing in advanced non-destructive testing systems are utilized in numerous applications, including oil and gas, medical imaging applications, railway, automotive, marine, and aviation industries. Phased-array ultrasonic testing-based methods can also be used in a variety of weld inspections, bond testing, thickness profiling, flaw detections, corrosion inspections, and in-service crack detection. The rapidity, safety, easiness, affordable price, and accurate visualization of phased array in measuring the defect characteristics such as size, shape, depth, and orientation allow its wide usage and even as a substitute for other inspection methods like radiographic methods. In phased array methods, more than one sound wave is employed to enhance the reliability and flexibility of inspection through the operation of several transducer assemblies, involving 16 to 256 small individual elements. Titanium having many desirable properties like high strength to weight ratio found many industrial applications, which highly necessitates its persistent inspection. For this aim, the present study focuses on the application of the phased-array ultrasonic testing technique for inspecting Ti components specifically in additive manufacturing, welding inspections, and defect detection of complex geometries and composites. Moreover, modern applications and improved computation methods are discussed. The development of phased-array ultrasonic testing inspection systems, particularly high throughput and efficient in situ and mobile equipment, and new computation methods will open new horizons toward the highly sophisticated inspection procedures.
KhairiMTMIbrahimSYunusMAM,et al.Ultrasound computed tomography for material inspection: principles, design and applications. Measurement2019; 146: 490–523.
2.
AkgünB. Investigation the reliability of ultrasound phased array method and conventional ultrasonic testing for detection of defects in austenitic stainless steels. PhD Thesis. Middle East Technical University,2015.
3.
YalçinM. Comparison of the flaw detection abilities of phased array and conventional ultrasonic testing methods in various steels. Middle East Technical University,2014.
4.
FreemantleRJHankinsonNBrotherhoodCJ. Rapid phased array ultrasonic imaging of large area composite aerospace structures. Insight - Nondestruct Test Cond Monit2005; 47: 129–132.
5.
HuHZhuXWangC, et al.Stretchable ultrasonic transducer arrays for three-dimensional imaging on complex surfaces. Sci Adv2018; 4: eaar3979.
6.
AttarilarSDjavanroodiFIrfanOM,et al.Strain uniformity footprint on mechanical performance and erosion-corrosion behavior of equal channel angular pressed pure titanium. Results Phys2020; 17: 103141.
7.
LiJZhouPAttarilarS,et al.Innovative surface modification procedures to achieve micro/nano-graded ti-based biomedical alloys and implants. Coatings2021; 11: 647.
8.
AttarilarSDjavanroodiFEbrahimiM,et al.Hierarchical microstructure tailoring of pure Titanium for enhancing cellular response at tissue-implant interface. J Biomed Nanotechnol2021; 17: 115–130.
9.
AttarilarSSalehiMTAl-FadhalahKJ,et al.Functionally graded titanium implants: characteristic enhancement induced by combined severe plastic deformation. PLoS One2019; 14: 1–18.
10.
AttarilarSYangJEbrahimiM,et al.The toxicity phenomenon and the related occurrence in metal and metal oxide nanoparticles: a brief review from the biomedical perspective. Front Bioeng Biotechnol2020; 8: 1–23.
11.
PramanikALittlefairG. Machining of Titanium alloy (ti-6Al-4 V)—theory to application. Mach Sci Technol2015; 19: 1–49.
12.
LiuJLiuJAttarilarS, et al.Nano-Modified Titanium implant materials: a way toward improved antibacterial properties. Front Bioeng Biotechnol2020; 8: 1314–1311.
13.
CuiCHuBZhaoL,et al.Titanium alloy production technology, market prospects and industry development. Mater Des2011; 32: 1684–1691.
14.
AttarilarSSalehiMTDjavanroodiF. Microhardness evolution of pure titanium deformed by equal channel angular extrusion. Metall Res Technol2019; 116: 1–10.
15.
BoyerRR. Titanium for aerospace: rationale and applications. Adv Perform Mater1995; 2: 349–368.
16.
SinghPPungotraHKalsiNS.On the characteristics of titanium alloys for the aircraft applications, mater. Today Proc. 2017; 4: 8971–8982.
17.
SchutzRWatkinsH. Recent developments in titanium alloy application in the energy industry. Mater Sci Eng A1998; 243: 305–315.
18.
GurrappaI. Characterization of titanium alloy ti-6Al-4 V for chemical, marine and industrial applications. Mater Charact2003; 51: 131–139.
19.
TakahashiKMoriKTakebeH. Application of Titanium and its alloys for automobile parts. MATEC Web Conf2020; 321: 02003.
20.
KowalskaERemitaHColbeau-JustinC,et al.Modification of Titanium dioxide with platinum ions and clusters: application in photocatalysis. J Phys Chem C2008; 112: 1124–1131.
21.
HellierC. Handbook of nondestructive evaluation. 3rd edn.New York: McGraw-Hill Education, 2020, pp. 1–594.
HudsonTBFollisPJPinakidisJJ,et al.Porosity detection and localization during composite cure inside an autoclave using ultrasonic inspection. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf2021; 147: 106337.
25.
ParkS-HChoiSJhangK-Y. Porosity evaluation of additively manufactured components using deep learning-based ultrasonic nondestructive testing. Int J Precis Eng Manuf Technol2022; 9: 395–407.
26.
PodymovaNBKalashnikovIEBolotovaLK,et al.Laser-ultrasonic nondestructive evaluation of porosity in particulate reinforced metal-matrix composites. Ultrasonics2019; 99: 105959.
27.
ChenDXiaoHFLiM,et al.A study on the inclusion sizing using immersion ultrasonic C-scan imaging. J Phys Conf Ser2017; 842: 012003.
28.
SmithDDHixsonBMountfordH, et al.Practical use of the MetalVision ultrasonic inclusion analyzer. In: Light met. Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing, 2015, pp.937–942.
29.
IharaIJenC-KFrançaDRDetection of inclusion in molten metal by focused ultrasonic wave. Jpn J Appl Phys2000; 39: 3152–3153.
30.
CrawfordSLDoctorSRCinsonAD,et al.Preliminary assessment of NDE methods on inspection of HDPE butt fusion piping joints for lack of fusion, in: vol. 5 high press. Technol Nondestruct Eval Div Student Pap Compet, ASMEDC2009; 27: 219–224.
31.
JavadiYMacLeodCNPierceSG, et al.Ultrasonic phased array inspection of a wire+ arc additive manufactured (WAAM) sample with intentionally embedded defects. Addit Manuf2019; 29: 100806.
32.
MunirNKimH-JSongS-J,et al.Investigation of deep neural network with drop out for ultrasonic flaw classification in weldments. J Mech Sci Technol2018; 32: 3073–3080.
33.
LévesqueDDubourgLBlouinA. Laser ultrasonics for defect detection and residual stress measurement of friction stir welds. Nondestruct Test Eval2011; 26: 319–333.
34.
Merazi MeksenTBoudraaBDraiR,et al.Automatic crack detection and characterization during ultrasonic inspection. J Nondestruct Eval2010; 29: 169–174.
AbbasiZYuhasDZhangL,et al.The detection of burn-through weld defects using noncontact ultrasonics. Materials (Basel)2018; 11: 128.
37.
XueSLeQJiaY,et al.Ultrasonic flaw detection of discontinuous defects in magnesium alloy materials. China Foundry2019; 16: 256–261.
38.
AlobaidiWSandgrenEAl-RizzoH. A survey on benchmark defects encountered in the oil pipe industries. Int J Sci Eng Res2015; 6: 844–853.
39.
GaoSWangNWangL,et al.Application of an ultrasonic wave propagation field in the quantitative identification of cavity defect of log disc. Comput Electron Agric2014; 108: 123–129.
40.
XiaoHChenDXuJ,et al.Defects identification using the improved ultrasonic measurement model and support vector machines. NDT E Int2020; 111: 102223.
41.
TaheriHShoaibMRBMKoesterLW,et al.Powder-based additive manufacturing - a review of types of defects, generation mechanisms, detection, property evaluation and metrology. Int J Addit Subtractive Mater Manuf2017; 1: 172.
42.
HonarvarFVarvani-FarahaniA. A review of ultrasonic testing applications in additive manufacturing: defect evaluation, material characterization, and process control. Ultrasonics2020; 108: 106227.
43.
ZhaoHZhouZFanJ,et al.Application of lock-in thermography for the inspection of disbonds in titanium alloy honeycomb sandwich structure. Infrared Phys Technol2017; 81: 69–78.
44.
BenammarADraiRGuessoumA. Detection of delamination defects in CFRP materials using ultrasonic signal processing. Ultrasonics2008; 48: 731–738.
45.
JiBZhangQCaoJ,et al.Non-contact detection of delamination in stainless steel/carbon steel composites with laser ultrasonic. Optik (Stuttg)2021; 226: 165893.
46.
GaoTWangYQingX. A new laser ultrasonic inspection method for the detection of multiple delamination defects. Materials (Basel)2021; 14: 2424.
47.
La Malfa RibollaERezaee HajidehiMRizzoP,et al.Ultrasonic inspection for the detection of debonding in CFRP-reinforced concrete. Struct Infrastruct Eng2018; 14: 807–816.
48.
WangXLiWLiY,et al.Phased array ultrasonic testing of micro-flaws in additive manufactured titanium block. Mater Res Express2020; 7: 016572.
TabatabaeipourSMHonarvarF. A comparative evaluation of ultrasonic testing of AISI 316L welds made by shielded metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding processes. J Mater Process Technol2010; 210: 1043–1050.
NelllganT. Phased array ultrasonic testing. In: HellierCJ (ed.), Handbook of Nondestructive Evaluation. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Education, 2020, pp.639–692.
53.
SchmerrLW. Introduction. In: Fundamentals of ultrasonic phased arrays. 1st ed. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing, 2015, pp.1–15.
54.
MaMCaoHJiangM, et al.High precision detection method for delamination defects in carbon fiber composite laminates based on ultrasonic technique and signal correlation algorithm. Materials (Basel)2020; 13: 3840.
55.
MaioLMemmoloVBoccardiS,et al.Ultrasonic and IR thermographic detection of a defect in a multilayered composite plate. Procedia Eng2016; 167: 71–79.
56.
AcevedoPFuentesMDuránJ,et al.Pulse generator for ultrasonic piezoelectric transducer arrays based on a programmable system-on-chip (PSoC). Adv Sci Technol Eng Syst J2017; 2: 205–209.
BertocciFGrandoniADjuric-RissnerT. Scanning acoustic microscopy (SAM): a robust method for defect detection during the manufacturing process of ultrasound probes for medical imaging. Sensors2019; 19: 4868.
59.
DavisJMMolesM. Resolving capabilities of phased array sectorial scans (S-scans) on diffracted tip signals. Insight - Nondestruc Test Cond Monit2006; 48: 233–239.
60.
Hitachi, Ltd., Hitachi-GE Nuclear Energy, Ltd., The Tokyo Electric Power Co, Inc. Ultrasonic integrity assessment for foundation bolts of nuclear power plants. E-J Adv Maint2011; 2: NT23.
RasselkordeECooperIWallaceP, et al.Phased array probe optimization for the inspection of titanium billets. AIP Conf Proceed2010; 1211: 1836–1843.
63.
HassanW. Improved Titanium billet inspection sensitivity through optimized phased array design, part II: experimental validation and comparative study with multizone. AIP Conf Proc2006; 820: 861–868.
64.
CilibertoACavacciniGSalvettiO, et al.Porosity detection in composite aeronautical structures. Infrared Phys Technol2002; 43: 139–143.
65.
CernigliaDScafidiMPantanoA,et al.Inspection of additive-manufactured layered components. Ultrasonics2015; 62: 292–298.
66.
BondLJKoesterLWTaheriH.NDE in-process for metal parts fabricated using powder based additive manufacturing. In: NiezreckiCMeyendorfNGGathK (eds.), Smart structures. USA: NDE Energy Syst Ind. 4.0, SPIE, 2019, p.1.
67.
LukacsPDavisGStratoudakiT,et al.Remote ultrasonic imaging of a wire arc additive manufactured ti-6AI-4 V component using Laser induced phased array. In: IEEE Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference, May 17–20, 2021, Glasgow, United Kingdom, 2021, pp.1–6.
68.
FayazbakhshKHonarvarFAminiH,et al.High frequency phased array ultrasonic testing of thermoplastic tensile specimens manufactured by fused filament fabrication with embedded defects. Addit Manuf2021; 47: 102335.
69.
LiWZhouZLiY. Application of ultrasonic array method for the inspection of TC18 addictive manufacturing Titanium alloy. Sensors2019; 19: 4371.
70.
MohseniEJavadiYLinesD, et al.Ultrasonic phased array inspection of wire plus arc additive manufactured (WAAM) titanium samples,https://strathprints.strath.ac.uk/70520/(2019,accessed 21 August 21, 2021).
71.
ZhouZLiWLiY,et al.Research on ultrasonic array testing method for additive-manufactured Titanium alloy. In: International Symposium on Structural Health Monitoring and Nondestructive Testing, 4–5 October 2018, Saarbruecken, Germany, 2018, pp.1–7.
72.
CharunetratsameeSPoopatBJirarungsateanC. Feasibility study of acoustic emission monitoring of hot cracking in GTAW weld. Key Eng Mater2013; 545: 236–240.
73.
HuggettDJDewanMWWahabMA,et al.Phased array ultrasonic testing for post-weld and OnLine detection of friction stir welding defects. Res Nondestruct Eval2017; 28: 187–210.
74.
ArakawaTHiroseSSendaT. The detection of weld cracks using ultrasonic testing. NDT Int1985; 18: 9–16.
75.
LiuJXuGGuX,et al.Ultrasonic test of resistance spot welds based on wavelet package analysis. Ultrasonics2015; 56: 557–565.
76.
IskhuzhinRRBorisovVNAtavinVG, et al.Ultrasonic testing of thin-walled titanium weld joint with adhesion detector. J Phys Conf Ser2020; 1636: 012004.
BoháčikMMičianMKoňárR,et al.Ultrasonic control of ductile cast iron castings by phased array technique. Arch Foundry Eng2019; 19: 9–14.
79.
ZhangYAttarilarSWangL,et al.A review on design and mechanical properties of additively manufactured NiTi implants for orthopedic applications. Int J Bioprinting2021; 7: 340.
SchniederjansDG. Adoption of 3D-printing technologies in manufacturing: a survey analysis. Int J Prod Econ2017; 183: 287–298.
82.
MacdonaldESalasREspalinD,et al.3D Printing for the rapid prototyping of structural electronics. IEEE Access2014; 2: 234–242.
83.
AttarilarSEbrahimiMDjavanroodiF,et al.3D printing technologies in metallic implants: a thematic review on the techniques and procedures. Int J Bioprinting2021; 7: 306.
84.
WallerJParkerBHHodgesKL, et al.Nondestructive evaluation of additive manufacturing state-of-the-discipline report. NASA/TM—2014–218560, White Sands Test Facility Las Cruces, New Mexico, 2014.
85.
EvertonSDickensPTuckC,et al.Using Laser ultrasound to detect subsurface defects in metal Laser powder bed fusion components. JOM2018; 70: 378–383.
86.
DavisGNagarajahRPalanisamyS,et al.Laser ultrasonic inspection of additive manufactured components. Int J Adv Manuf Technol2019; 102: 2571–2579.
87.
SpiesM. Analytical methods for modeling of ultrasonic nondestructive testing of anisotropic media. Ultrasonics2004; 42: 213–219.
88.
AnandamuruganS. Manual phased array ultrasonic technique for weld application. In: Indian national seminar & exhibition on non-destructive evaluation NDE, Bangalore, India: GE Inspection Technologies, JFWTC,2009, p.7.
89.
Georgios LiaptsisDLSutcliffeMWrightB. Development of advanced ultrasonic techniques for the testing of thick electron beam welds for aerospace applications. In: The 54th annual conference of the British Institute of NDT - NDT 2015, Telford, United Kingdom, 2015, p.12.
90.
SpencerRSundermanRTodorovE. FMC/TFM experimental comparisons. In 44th Annual Review of Progress in Quantitative Nondestructive Evaluation.2018; 37: 1–5.
91.
LiWZhouZLiY. Inspection of butt welds for complex surface parts using ultrasonic phased array. Ultrasonics2019; 96: 75–82.
92.
Sergey PudovikovRPAndreyB. Innovative ultrasonic testing (UT) of nuclear components by sampling phased array with 3D visualization of inspection results. In: 8th international conference on NDE in relation to structural integrity for nuclear and pressurised components, Saarbrücken, Germany,2010, p.8.
93.
SchmitzVMüllerWSchäferG.Synthetic aperture focusing technique in ultrasonic inspection of coarse grained materials. Acoust Imaging1992; 19: 545–551.
94.
KumarSMenakaMVenkatramanB. Dual matrix array probe based phased array ultrasonic testing for inspection of trimetallic weld joints. Trans Indian Inst Met2022; 75: 1573–1582.
95.
LimSJKimYLChoS,et al.Ultrasonic inspection for welds with irregular curvature geometry using flexible phased array probes and semi-auto scanners: a feasibility study. Appl Sci2022; 12: 748.
96.
ChatillonSCattiauxGSerreM,et al.Ultrasonic non-destructive testing of pieces of complex geometry with a flexible phased array transducer. Ultrasonics2000; 38: 131–134.
97.
HopkinsDNeauGBerLL. Advanced phased-array technologies for ultrasonic inspection of complex composite parts. In: International workshop smart materials, structures & NDT in aerospace conference, 2–4 November 2011 Montreal, Canada,2011, pp.1−10.
98.
SoutisC. Carbon fiber reinforced plastics in aircraft construction. Mater Sci Eng A2005; 412: 171–176.
99.
TowsyfyanHBiguriABoardmanR, et al.Successes and challenges in non-destructive testing of aircraft composite structures. Chinese J Aeronaut2020; 33: 771–791.
Kee PaikJThayamballiAKSung KimG. The strength characteristics of aluminum honeycomb sandwich panels. Thin-Walled Struct1999; 35: 205–231.
102.
AbbadiAKoutsawaYCarmasolA,et al.Experimental and numerical characterization of honeycomb sandwich composite panels. Simul Model Pract Theory2009; 17: 1533–1547.
103.
TaylorJODupontHM. Thermographic inspection of metallic honeycomb sandwich structures. In: Review of progress in quantitative nondestructive evaluation. Boston, MA: Springer US,1999, pp.1373–1380.
HagemaierDJ. Nondestructive detection of hydrides and alpha-case in Titanium alloys. In: Titanium science technology. Boston, MA: Springer US,1973, pp.755–765.
106.
ParkesPNButlerRMeyerJ,et al.Static strength of metal-composite joints with penetrative reinforcement. Compos Struct2014; 118: 250–256.
107.
GarnierCPastorM-LEymaF,et al.The detection of aeronautical defects in situ on composite structures using nondestructive testing. Compos Struct2011; 93: 1328–1336.
108.
RaišutisRKažysRMažeikaL,et al.Application of ultrasonic guided waves for non-destructive testing of large and complex geometry engineering structures. Vibroeng Procedia2017; 14: 87–90.
109.
DominguezNReverdyFJensonF. POD evaluation using simulation: a phased array UT case on a complex geometry part. AIP Conf Proc2014; 1581: 2031–2038.
110.
daCJFilhoPMaiaVP, et al.Probability of detection of discontinuities by ultrasonic phased array inspection of 9% ni steel joints welded with alloy 625 as the filler metal. Ultrasonics2022; 119: 106582.
111.
GeorgiouGA. Pod curves, their derivation, applications and limitations. Insight - Nondestruct Test Cond Monit2007; 49: 409–414.
112.
VirkkunenIKoskinenTPapulaS,et al.Comparison of â versus a and hit/miss POD-estimation methods: a European viewpoint. J Nondestruct Eval2019; 38: 89.
113.
KurzJHJüngertADuganS,et al.Reliability considerations of NDT by probability of detection (POD) determination using ultrasound phased array. Eng Fail Anal2013; 35: 609–617.
114.
RentalaVKMylavarapuPGautamJP. Issues in estimating probability of detection of NDT techniques – a model assisted approach. Ultrasonics2018; 87: 59–70.
115.
SiljamaOKoskinenTJessen-JuhlerO,et al.Automated flaw detection in multi-channel phased array ultrasonic data using machine learning. J Nondestruct Eval2021; 40: 67.
116.
AggarwalLP. Data augmentation in dermatology image recognition using machine learning, Ski Res Technol2019; 25: 815–820.
117.
CruzFCSimas FilhoEFAlbuquerqueMCS,et al.Efficient feature selection for neural network based detection of flaws in steel welded joints using ultrasound testing. Ultrasonics2017; 73: 1–8.
118.
GargAC. Delamination—a damage mode in composite structures. Eng Fract Mech1988; 29: 557–584.
119.
BolotinVV. Delaminations in composite structures: its origin, buckling, growth and stability. Compos Part B Eng1996; 27: 129–145.
120.
TianZYuLLeckeyC. Rapid guided wave delamination detection and quantification in composites using global-local sensing. Smart Mater Struct2016; 25: 085042.
121.
KappatosVAsfisGSalonitisK, et al.Theoretical assessment of different ultrasonic configurations for delamination defects detection in composite components. Procedia CIRP2017; 59: 29–34.
122.
AbdessalemBRedouaneDAhmedK,et al.Enhancement of phased array ultrasonic signal in composite materials using TMST algorithm. Phys Procedia2015; 70: 488–491.
123.
AbdessalemBAhmedKRedouaneD. Signal quality improvement using a new TMSSE algorithm: application in delamination detection in composite materials. J Nondestruct Eval2017; 36: 16.
124.
BrathAJSimonettiF. Phased array imaging of Complex-geometry composite components. IEEE Trans Ultrason Ferroelectr Freq Control2017; 64: 1573–1582.
125.
CiorauPPoguetJ. Special linear phased array probes used for ultrasonic examination of complex turbine components. CINDE J2002; 23: 6–13.
126.
ErhardASchenkGHauserT,et al.New applications using phased array techniques. Nucl Eng Des2001; 206: 325–336.
127.
ToullelanGCasulaOAbittanE, et al.Application of a 3d smart flexible phased-array to piping inspection. AIP Conf Proc2008; 975: 794–800.
128.
Badidi BoudaA. Grain size influence on ultrasonic velocities and attenuation. NDT E Int2003; 36: 1–5.
129.
LauxDCrosBDespauxG,et al.Ultrasonic study of UO2: effects of porosity and grain size on ultrasonic attenuation and velocities. J Nucl Mater2002; 300: 192–197.
130.
PapadakisEP. Ultrasonic attenuation caused by scattering in polycrystalline metals. J Acoust Soc Am1965; 37: 711–717.
131.
LiuYTianQGuanX. Grain size estimation using phased array ultrasound attenuation. NDT E Int2021; 122: 102479.
132.
PalanichamyPJosephAJayakumarT,et al.Ultrasonic velocity measurements for estimation of grain size in austenitic stainless steel. NDT E Int1995; 28: 179–185.
133.
DaoxiangWDaoruiWJunS. Application research on corrosion scanning of coated pressure vessel with ultrasonic phased array inspection technology. J Phys Conf Ser2021; 1894: 012056.
134.
WuRZhangHYangR,et al.Nondestructive testing for corrosion evaluation of metal under coating. J Sensors2021; 2021: 1–16.
135.
SampathSDhayalanRKumarA,et al.Evaluation of material degradation using phased array ultrasonic technique with full matrix capture. Eng Fail Anal2021; 120: 105118.
136.
FarhidzadehASalamoneS. Reference-free corrosion damage diagnosis in steel strands using guided ultrasonic waves. Ultrasonics2015; 57: 198–208.
137.
DucoussoMDalodièreABaillardA. Evaluation of the thermal aging of aeronautical composite materials using lamb waves. Ultrasonics2019; 94: 174–182.
138.
TantKMMMulhollandAJGachaganA. A model-based approach to crack sizing with ultrasonic arrays. IEEE Trans Ultrason Ferroelectr Freq Control2015; 62: 915–926.
139.
PengCBaiLZhangJ,et al.The sizing of small surface-breaking fatigue cracks using ultrasonic arrays. NDT E Int2018; 99: 64–71.
140.
SongW-AKeyiYChenY-F,et al.Mechanical property analysis with ultrasonic phased array. In: 17th World Conference on Nondestructive Testing, 25–28 October 2008, Shanghai, China,2008.
141.
BelchenkoVKLobachevAMModestovVS,et al.An estimation of the strain-stress state under cyclic loading by the acoustoelasticity method. St Petersbg Polytech Univ J Phys Math2017; 3: 71–76.
142.
RosaGPsyllakiPOltraR,et al.Laser ultrasonic testing for estimation of adhesion of Al2O3 plasma sprayed coatings. Surf Eng2001; 17: 332–338.
CookRK. Variation of elastic constants and static strains with hydrostatic pressure: a method for calculation from ultrasonic measurements. J Acoust Soc Am1957; 29: 445–449.
145.
SmithRE. Ultrasonic elastic constants of carbon fibers and their composites. J Appl Phys1972; 43: 2555–2561.
146.
McSkiminHJ. Measurement of elastic constants at low temperatures by means of ultrasonic waves–data for silicon and germanium single crystals, and for fused silica. J Appl Phys1953; 24: 988–997.
147.
FosterDRDapinoMJBabuSS. Elastic constants of ultrasonic additive manufactured al 3003-H18. Ultrasonics2013; 53: 211–218.
148.
HerdJSConwayMD.The evolution to modern phased array architectures. Proc IEEE2016; 104: 519–529.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
