Vehicle-trailer systems are widely used in freight transport, yet the conventional passive trailer significantly diminishes the dynamic performance and energy economy of the tow vehicle. This study presents a comprehensive, model-based assessment of how trailer electrification influences the dynamic performance and energy economy of the tow vehicle. Longitudinal dynamics models are developed for a single-vehicle baseline and two vehicle-trailer configurations with passive and electric trailers. An optimal driving force distribution strategy based on adhesion utilization is proposed and applied consistently across the considered cases. For the electric-trailer system, an instantaneous power-split optimization method is used to provide a consistent benchmark across configurations for energy-economy evaluation in terms of equivalent fuel consumption. Simulation results demonstrate that the Vehicle-Electric-Trailer system effectively mitigates the severe performance degradations of the passive configuration. It reduces the increase in 0–100 km/h acceleration time from 202.9% to 62.9%, significantly improving tire-road adhesion utilization, and cuts the equivalent fuel consumption increase from 107.3% to 53.9% and 149.9% to 109.6% under the China Highway Driving Cycle and Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicles Test Cycle. These findings validate the electric trailer as an active drivetrain component that can enhance the dynamic economic performance of the vehicle-trailer system, providing a practical solution for vehicle-trailer operations.
ChenHLiLLangeA, et al. Innovative dedicated hybrid transmission concepts in the next generation of hybrid powertrains. SAE Int J Altern Powertrains2019; 08(1): 75–88. https://doi.org/10.4271/08-08-01-0005
2.
DarlingJTilleyDGaoB. An experimental investigation of car—trailer high-speed stability. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part D: J Automobile Eng2009; 223(4): 471–484. https://doi.org/10.1243/09544070jauto981
3.
JeongDChoiSB. Tube-based robust model predictive control for tracking control of autonomous articulated vehicles. IEEE Trans Intell Vehicles2024; 9(1): 2184–2196. https://doi.org/10.1109/tiv.2023.3320795
4.
ZhaoHZhouSChenW, et al. Modeling and motion control of industrial tractor–trailers vehicles using force compensation. IEEE/ASME Trans Mechatron2021; 26(2): 645–656. https://doi.org/10.1109/tmech.2021.3057898
5.
DarlingJStadenPM. A study of caravan unsteady aerodynamics. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part D: J Automobile Eng2003; 217(7): 551–560.
6.
JinXDaiSLLiangJ. Adaptive constrained formation-tracking control for a tractor-trailer mobile robot team with multiple constraints. IEEE Trans Automat Contr2023; 68(3): 1700–1707. https://doi.org/10.1109/tac.2022.3151846
7.
ZhaoHChenWZhouS, et al. Localization and motion planning of industrial tractor–trailers vehicles. IEEE Trans Control Syst Technol2023; 31(6): 2928–2936. https://doi.org/10.1109/tcst.2023.3275497
8.
LiBLiLAcarmanT, et al. Optimization-based maneuver planning for a tractor-trailer vehicle in a curvy tunnel: a weak reliance on sampling and search. IEEE Robot Autom Lett2022; 7(2): 706–713. https://doi.org/10.1109/lra.2021.3131693
9.
HanSYoonKParkG, et al. Robust lane keeping control for tractor with multi-unit trailer under parametric uncertainty. IEEE Trans Intell Vehicles2024; 9(1): 2333–2347. https://doi.org/10.1109/tiv.2023.3272655
10.
ZhouSZhaoHChenW, et al. Dynamic state estimation and control of a heavy tractor–trailers vehicle. IEEE/ASME Trans Mechatron2021; 26(3): 1467–1478. https://doi.org/10.1109/tmech.2020.3021705
11.
LiuYYueMZhaoX, et al. Adaptive robust path tracking preview control for tractor-trailer trucks considering trailer sway and stochastic disturbances. IEEE Trans Intell Transp Syst2025; 26(4): 5422–5434. https://doi.org/10.1109/tits.2024.3524581
12.
BegliniMBelvedereTLanariL, et al. An intrinsically stable MPC approach for anti-jackknifing control of tractor-trailer vehicles. IEEE/ASME Trans Mechatron2022; 27(6): 4417–4428. https://doi.org/10.1109/tmech.2022.3154295
13.
Habibnejad KorayemAKhajepourAFidanB. A review on vehicle-trailer state and parameter estimation. IEEE Trans Intell Transp Syst2022; 23(7): 5993–6010. https://doi.org/10.1109/tits.2021.3074457
14.
LinCYuXZhaoM, et al. Collaborative control of novel uninterrupted propulsion system for all-climate electric vehicles. Automot Innov2022; 5: 18–28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42154-021-00170-0
15.
ZhaoMShiJLinC. Optimization of integrated energy management for a dual-motor coaxial coupling propulsion electric city bus. Appl Energy2019; 243: 21–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.03.195
WuJLiangJRuanJ, et al. A robust energy management strategy for EVs with dual input power-split transmission. Mech Syst Signal Process2018; 111: 442–455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ymssp.2018.04.007
HuMZengJXuS, et al. Efficiency study of a dual-motor coupling EV powertrain. IEEE Trans Vehicular Technol2015; 64(6): 2252–2260. https://doi.org/10.1109/tvt.2014.2347349
21.
SunXCaoYJinZ, et al. An adaptive ECMS based on traffic information for plug-in hybrid electric buses. IEEE Trans Ind Electron2023; 70(9): 9248–9259. https://doi.org/10.1109/tie.2022.3210549
22.
AllwrightJRahmanAColemanM, et al. Heavy multi-articulated vehicles with electric and hybrid power trains for road freight activity: an Australian context. Energies2022; 15(17): 6237. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15176237
23.
DibaFEsmailzadehE. Development of hybrid electric heavy-duty truck with self-propelled trailer. Int J Heavy Veh Syst2018; 25(2): 203–222. https://doi.org/10.1504/ijhvs.2018.10011869
24.
SeifferASchützLFreyM, et al. Constrained control allocation improving fault tolerance of a four wheel independently driven articulated vehicle. IEEE Open J Intell Transp Syst2023; 4: 187–203. https://doi.org/10.1109/ojits.2023.3252399
25.
WangWZhangWCaoW. Yaw stability control through independent driving torque control of mid and rear wheels of an articulated bus. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part D: J Automobile Eng2020; 234(13): 2947–2960.
26.
HesedingJDieckmannT. How an electric drive in a semi-trailer improves the overall vehicle performance. In: 12th international Munich chassis symposium 2021 (ed. PfefferP), 2022, pp.109–123. Springer.
27.
ZhangJHanZZhaoZ, et al. An automated torque-following optimization method for energy-efficient e-trailer trucks. IEEE Trans Transp Electrification2025; 11(6): 13848–13859. https://doi.org/10.1109/tte.2025.3605396
28.
SurcelMDMercierSBonsiAK. Energy efficiency evaluation of a hybrid electric tractor-semi-trailer prototype. In: SAE energy & propulsion conference & exhibition, Columbus, OH, USA, 12–14 November 2024. SAE International.
29.
DibaFEsmailzadehE. Components sizing optimisation of hybrid electric heavy duty truck using multi-objective genetic algorithm. Int J Heavy Veh Syst2020; 27(3): 387–404. https://doi.org/10.1504/ijhvs.2020.108734
30.
XuTFanWSunY, et al. Differential steering control based on CNF and ADRC techniques for distributed-drive articulated heavy vehicles. IEEE Trans Vehicular Technol2024; 73(5): 6429–6442. https://doi.org/10.1109/tvt.2023.3346170
31.
KongXWangBGaoW, et al. Lateral stability control of distributed electric drive articulated heavy vehicles. Int J Veh Perform2023; 9(2): 184–203. https://doi.org/10.1504/ijvp.2023.10053671
32.
LiuYWangJZhangQ, et al. State estimation of distributed electric drive articulated vehicles based on 4DOF and 6DOF models. J Comput Des Eng2025; 12(8): 286–299.
