Restricted accessResearch articleFirst published online 2026
Simulation and experimental analysis of transient response of cross-country vehicle tire traversing a cleat based on a high-precision finite element model
This study develops a high-fidelity finite element (FE) model to predict the mechanical behavior of cross-country vehicle tires on complex terrains. Through reverse engineering and material testing, the hyperelastic parameters of the rubber compounds were characterized, and the cord-rubber composites were accurately modeled using rebar elements with orthotropic elasticity. The established 3D tire model incorporates Rayleigh damping to enhance dynamic simulation stability. Extensive validation under static and dynamic conditions demonstrates high accuracy. The correlation coefficients between predictions and experiments exceed 95% for static stiffness on flat ground and cleat loading tests. For dynamic cleat traversal, a hybrid simulation strategy was employed. The simulated vertical force responses show excellent agreement with experimental measurements across various operating conditions, with a global accuracy consistently above 95%. This validated model provides a reliable digital tool for tire performance prediction and design optimization.
GimG. Three dimensional tire for steady-state simulations of vehicle. SAE technical paper 931913, 1993. https://doi.org/10.4271/931913
2.
BiSHanY. Real-time estimation method of tire dynamics parameters for sliding steering robots in orchards. Trans Chin Soc Agric Mach2023; 54(8): 110–121, 192.
3.
MillanPAmbrósioJ. Tire–road contact modelling for multibody simulations with regularised road and enhanced UA tire models. Multibody Syst Dyn2025; 63: 273–302. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11044-024-09987-z
4.
BazREl MajdoubKGiriF, et al. Control of quarter electric vehicle based on PACEJKA tire model by fuzzy sliding controller. Int J Power Electron Drive Syst2025; 16(1): 267–277. https://doi.org/10.11591/ijpeds.v16.i1.pp267-277
5.
WenXDuJDuZ, et al. Running stability for monorail vehicles based on the magic-formula tire model. Int J Struct Stab Dyn2025; 25(13): 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1142/S021945542650121X
6.
FengSZhaoYDengH, et al. Parameter identification of magic formula tire model based on Fibonacci tree optimization algorithm. J Shanghai Jiaotong Univ (Sci)2021; 26(5): 647–657. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12204-021-2354-9
7.
WalterPIgorSLucasT, et al. Comparative study of tire models applied to electronic stability control in automotive simulator. IEEE Latin Am Trans2024; 22(10): 835–841. https://doi.org/10.1109/TLA.2024.10706024
8.
AnJYuHXuM, et al. Belt bundle ply optimization of 12R22.5 tires using BP neural network and multi-island genetic algorithm. Mech Based Des Struct Mach. Epub ahead of print 11June2025. https://doi.org/10.1080/15397734.2025.2517244
9.
ElifYBerrinD. Comparative study of application of production sequencing and scheduling problems in tire mixing operations with ADAM, Grey Wolf Optimizer, and Genetic Algorithm. Systems2025; 13(11): 998. https://doi.org/10.3390/systems13110998
10.
ParkSShimKParkS, et al. Estimation of tire friction for tip-over analysis based on genetic algorithm and long short-term memory. Int J Automot Technol2025; 26(7): 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12239-025-00346-1
11.
HeTLiZWangY. Finite element analysis for sliding abrasion of tread blocks of radial tire. Eng Mech2010; 27(7): 237–243, 249.
12.
AndreaGVitoPAntonioG, et al. Optical methodologies for the overall characterizations of non-pneumatic tires. Opt Lasers Eng2025; 186: 108829. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlaseng.2025.108829
13.
GerardoGGuidoNMarioB, et al. Experimental methodology for tire ride analysis based on outdoor cleat testing. SAE Int J Veh Dyn Stab NVH2025; 9(3): 357–376. https://doi.org/10.4271/10-09-03-0023
14.
ChenDWuJSuB, et al. Thermo-mechanical-abrasive coupling analysis of solid rubber tire under high-speed rolling. Wear2023; 512–513: 204546. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2022.204546
15.
HuangLLiZJiangX, et al. Study on fatigue life of mining tires based on fatigue crack propagation theory. Theor Appl Fract Mech2025; 138: 104964. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tafmec.2025.104964
16.
DhrangdhariyaPMaitiSRaiB. Effect of spoke design and material nonlinearity on non-pneumatic tire stiffness and durability performance. SAE Int J Passeng Cars Mech Syst2021; 14(2): 117–135. https://doi.org/10.4271/06-14-02-0008
17.
LuDYangWWuH, et al. Research on simplified tire finite element modeling and simulation method. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part D: J Automob Eng2025; 239(2): 447–463. https://doi.org/10.1177/09544070231207528
18.
YueXXieCGaoX, et al. Research and application of an optimized flexible ring rolling tire model. J Vib Shock2021; 40(8): 92–97.
19.
ZhangCZhaoYFengS, et al. Stiffness analysis of new type non-pneumatic tires based on pseudo-rigid-flexible body coupling model. China Mech Eng2021; 32(9): 1051–1060, 1072.
20.
GongKWeiYYeJ. Simulation of tire rolling resistance based on thermodynamic finite element analysis. China Mech Eng2009; 20: 626–629.
21.
GallreinABaeckerMGuanJ. Simulation of dynamic gas cavity effects of a tire under operational conditions. SAE technical paper 2018-01-0682, 2018. https://doi.org/10.4271/2018-01-0682
22.
WuTZhangXWangD, et al. Design and implementation of novel testing system for intelligent tire development: from bench to road. Sensors2025; 25(8): 2430. https://doi.org/10.3390/s25082430
23.
LiSLuoHFengG, et al. Modeling and dynamic analysis of mechanic-electro-road coupling system of electric vehicles. J Mech Eng2021; 57: 51–61. https://doi.org/10.3901/JME.2021.12.051
24.
FathiHEl-SayeghZRenJ. Temperature-dependent analysis of the tire–road interaction characteristics for a passenger car tire using finite element analysis. SAE Int J Passeng Veh Syst2025; 18(2): 151–166. https://doi.org/10.4271/15-18-02-0010
25.
FathiHEl-SayeghZRenJ, et al. Modeling and validation of a passenger car tire using finite element analysis. Vehicles2024; 6(1): 384–402. https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles6010016
26.
ZangMWangLZhouT, et al. Finite element simulation analysis and evaluation of radial tire’s transient dynamic characteristics. J South China Univ Technol (Nat Sci)2020; 48(8): 124–129.
27.
SiramdasuYLiKWheelerR. Understanding tire dynamic characteristics for vehicle dynamics ride using simulation methods. Tire Sci Technol2020; 48(3): 188–206. https://doi.org/10.2346/tire.19.180196
28.
ZengHLinZHuangG, et al. Parameter identification of DEM-FEM coupling model to simulate traction behavior of tire-soil interaction. J Terramech2025; 117: 101012. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jterra.2024.101012
29.
WangKShenYLiuZ. Study on traction performance of pneumatic tire-moist clay based on FEM-SPH method. Mech Based Des Struct Mach. Epub ahead of print 20June2025. https://doi.org/10.1080/15397734.2025.2518272
30.
MaSWuLLiuW. Numerical investigation of temperatures in ultra-large off-the-road tires under operating conditions at mine sites. J Therm Sci Eng Appl2023; 15(2): 021010. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4056086
31.
ZhangYZhouTYangX, et al. Transient dynamic behavior of tire traversing obstacles in full vehicle scenario. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part D: J Automob Eng2020; 234(7): 2001–2013. https://doi.org/10.1177/0954407019871758
32.
ChangJLinCSunD. Evaluation of rubber friction materials viscoelasticity by ultrasonic wave method. Lubr Eng2007; 11: 55–58.
33.
HeHZhangQZhangY, et al. A comparative study of 85 hyperelastic constitutive models for both unfilled rubber and highly filled rubber nanocomposite material. Nano Mater Sci2022; 4(2): 64–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoms.2021.07.003
34.
HohenbergerTWindslowRPugnoN, et al. A constitutive model for both low and high strain nonlinearities in highly filled elastomers and implementation with user-defined material subroutines in ABAQUS. Rubber Chem Technol2019; 92(4): 653–686. https://doi.org/10.5254/rct.19.80387
35.
T/CSAE 350—2024. General test method for static stiffness characteristics of tires [Group Standard]. China Association of Automobile Manufacturers (CAAM), 2024.
36.
T/CSAE 348—2024. General test method for dynamic cleat-passing characteristics of tires [Group Standard]. China Association of Automobile Manufacturers (CAAM), 2024.
