One way to reduce the carbon dioxide emissions of heavy vehicles is to install regenerative braking systems. These capture the kinetic energy of the vehicle during braking and store it, in order to feed it back into the drivetrain during acceleration. It is not clear, however, which of the many available technologies should be used to implement this regenerative braking.
This report explores the different possible energy capture and storage technologies for regenerative braking, including electrical, kinetic, hydraulic and compressed air. The basic systems are plotted on a selection chart, and an optimal selection methodology is used to aid in the selection of the lightest and smallest system for regenerative braking.
The results of this comparison and selection show that hydraulic energy storage is likely to be 33% smaller and 20% lighter than the closest electrical counterparts and is therefore a logical selection for regenerative braking on the trailers of heavy goods vehicles.
Digest of United Kingdom energy statistics 2009. London: Department for Business Enterprise and Regulatory Reform, 2009.
2.
UK energy in brief 2009. London: Department for Business Enterprise and Regulatory Reform, 2009.
3.
Road statistics 2008: traffic, speeds and congestion. London: Department for Transport, 2009.
4.
Guidelines to Defra/DECC’s greenhouse gas conversion factors for company reporting. London: Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs, 2009.
5.
OdhamsAMCRoebuckRLLeeYJ. Factors influencing the energy consumption of road freight transport. Proc IMechE Part C: J Mechanical Engineering Science2010; 224(9): 1995–2010.
6.
OdhamsAMCRoebuckRLJujnovichBA. Active steering of a tractor semitrailer. Proc IMechE Part D:J Automobile Engineering2011; 225(7): 847–869.
7.
Volvo FE hybrid for distribution and refuse collection. Göteborg: Volvo Truck Corporation, 2008.
EhrenmanG. Look, Ma, no transmission. Mech Engng2005; 127: 24–26.
12.
BakerHCornwellRKoehlerEPattersonJ. Review of low carbon technologies for heavy goods vehicles. Report for the Department for Transport, Ricardo, Shoreham-by-Sea, UK, 2009.
Permo-Drive. The hybrid solution for urban commercial vehicles. The technology, http://permodrive.com/tech/index.htm (2009, accessed 29 July 2009).
16.
MathesonPSteckiJ. Development and simulation of a hydraulic-hybrid powertrain for use in commercial heavy vehicles. In: International truck and bus meeting and exhibition, Fort Worth, TX, USA, 2003, paper no. 2003-01-3370. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers.
StauntonRHAyersCWChiassonJN. Evaluation of 2004 Toyota Prius hybrid electric drive system. Report ORNL/TM-2006/423, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, USA, May2006.
24.
HsuJSAyersCWCoomerCL. Toyota Prius motor torque capability, torque property, no-load back EMF, and mechanical losses. Report ORNL/TM-2004/185, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA, September2004.
25.
BerdichevskyGKeltyKStraubelJToomreE. The Tesla Roadster battery system. Report, Tesla Motors Inc., Palo Alto, CA, USA, 2006.
TamWHDreyMDJacksonAC. Design and manufacture of the ETS VIII composite overwrapped xenon pressure vessel. In: 26th international electric propulsion conference, Kitakyusyu, Japan, 17–21 October 1999, paper no. IEC-99-244. Tokyo: Japan Society for Aeronautical and Space Sciences.
34.
TamWHBallingerIAKuoJ. Design and manufcture of a composite overwrapped xenon conical pressure vessel. In: 32nd AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE joint propulsion conference, Lake Buena Vista, FL, USA, 1–3 July 1996, paper no. AIAA 96-2752. Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.
35.
KawaharaGMcCleskySF. Titanium lined, carbon composite overwrapped pressure vessel. In: 32nd AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE joint propulsion conference, Lake Buena Vista, FL, USA, 1–3 July 1996, paper no. AIAA 96-2751. Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.
36.
Grimes-LedesmaLPhoenixSLBeesonH. Testing of carbon fiber composite overwrapped pressure vessel stress-rupture lifetime. In: ASC/ASTM 21st annual technical conference of the American Society for Composites, Dearborn, MI, USA, 17–20 September 2006, paper no. 06-1957. Pasadena, CA: NASA.
37.
HenningUThoolenFLamperthM. Ultra low emission traction drive system for hybrid light rail vehicles. In: International symposium on power electronics, electrical drives, automation and motion, Taormina, Sicily, Italy, 23–26 May 2006, pp.1068–1072. Piscataway, NJ: IEEE.
38.
HebnerRBenoJWallsA. Flywheel batteries come around again. Spectrum, IEEE2002; 39: 46–51.
AkehurstSBraceCVaughanND. Performance investigations of a novel rolling traction CVT. SAE paper 2001-01-0874, 2001.
50.
LoewenthalSHRohnDAAndersonNE. Advances in traction drive technology. SAE paper 831304, 1983.
51.
ShinojimaTToyodaTMiyataS. Development of the next-generation toroidal CVT-geared neutral and power-split system for 450 N m engines. NSK Tech J2005; 679: 1–9.
Radial piston air motors. Data sheet series P1V-P, Parker Pneumatics, Norwich, UK, 2008.
55.
InmanSEl-GindyMHaworthDC. Hybrid electric vehicles technology and simulation: literature review. Int J Heavy Veh Systems2003; 10: 167–187.
56.
LuSCorzineKAFerdowsiM. A new battery/ultracapacitor energy storage system design and its motor drive integration for hybrid electric vehicles. IEEE Trans Veh Technol2007; 56: 1516–1523.
57.
BaumanJKazeraniM. A comparative study of fuel-cell-battery, fuel-cell–ultracapacitor, and fuel-cell-battery–ultracapacitor vehicles. IEEE Trans Veh Technol2008; 57: 760–769.
58.
LinC-CKangJ-MGrizzleJWPengH. Energy management strategy for a parallel hybrid electric truck. In: 2001 American control conference, Arlington, VA, USA, 25–27 June 2001, pp.2878–2883. New York: IEEE.
59.
LinC-CJeonSPengHLeeJM. Driving pattern recognition for control of hybrid electric trucks. Veh System Dynamics2004; 42: 41–58.
60.
LinC-CPengHJeonSLeeJM. Control of a hybrid electric truck based on driving pattern recognition. In: 6th international symposium on advanced vehicle control, Hiroshima, Japan, 9–13 September 2002, vol. 42, pp.41–58. Tokyo: Japan Society of Automotive Engineers.
61.
LinC-CPengHGrizzleJWKangJ-M. Power management strategy for a parallel hybrid electric truck. IEEE Trans Control Systems Technol2003; 11; 839–849.
62.
CaoJCaoBChenWXuP. Neural network self-adaptive pid control for driving and regenerative braking of electric vehicle. In: 2007 IEEE international conference on automation and logistics, Jinan, People’s Republic of China, 18–21 August 2007, pp.2029–2034. New York: IEEE.
63.
CaoJCaoBXuPBaiZ. Regenerative-braking sliding mode control of electric vehicle based on neural network identification. In: IEEE/ASME international conference on advanced intelligent mechatronics, Xian, People’s Republic of China, 2–5 July 2008, pp.1219–1224. New York: IEEE.
64.
DextreitCHannisGBurnhamK. Power management techniques for hybrid vehicles. In: 18th international conference on systems engineering (eds BurnhamKJHaasOCL), Coventry, UK, 5–7 September 2006. Coventry, UK: Coventry University.
65.
WangFZhongHMaoX-J. Regenerative braking algorithm for a parallel hybrid electric vehicle with continuously variable transmission. In: IEEE international conference on vehicular electronics and safety, Beijing, People’s Republic of China, 13–15 December 2007, pp.1–4. New York: IEEE.
66.
KimDHwangSKimH. Vehicle stability enhancement of four-wheel-drive hybrid electric vehicle using rear motor control. IEEE Trans Veh Technol2008; 57: 727–735.
67.
LinC-CFilipiZLoucaL. Modelling and control of a medium-duty hybrid electric truck. Intl J Heavy Veh Systems2004; 11: 349–371.
68.
MierloJVan den BosschePMaggettoG. Models of energy sources for EV and HEV: fuel cells, batteries, ultracapacitors, flywheels and engine–generators. J Power Sources2004; 128: 76–89.
69.
Van den BosscheP. The electric vehicle: raising the standards. PhD ThesisNatural Sciences, Vrije University, Brussels, Belgium, 2003.
70.
Toyota Prius Hybrid 2010 model 3rd generation emergency response guide. Toyota City, Aichi: Toyota Motor Corporation, 2010.
71.
MorenoJOrtuzarMEDixonJW. Energy-management system for a hybrid electric vehicle, using ultracapacitors and neural networks. IEEE Trans Ind Electron2006; 53: 614–623.
72.
LuSCorzineKAFerdowsiM. A unique ultra-capacitor direct integration scheme in multilevel motor drives for large vehicle propulsion. IEEE Trans Veh Technol2007; 56: 3945–3992.
73.
AshbyMF. Materials selection in mechanical design, 3rd edition.Oxford: Butterworth–Heinmann, 2005.
74.
CastelvecchiD. Spinning into control. Sci News2007; 171: 312–313.
75.
RuddellA. Investigation on storage technologies for intermittent renewable energies: evaluation and recommended R&D strategy. INVESTIRE Thematic Network, Storage Technology Report WP-ST6: Flywheel, Council for the Central Laboratory of the Research Councils, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Chilton, Didcot, Oxfordshire, UK, 2003.
76.
VintMKGilmoreDB. Simulation of transit bus regenerative braking systems. Math Comput Simulation1988; 30: 55–61.
77.
WicksFDonnellyK. Modeling regenerative braking and storage for vehicles. In: 32nd intersociety energy conversion engineering conference, Honolulu, HI, 27 July–1 August 1997, vol. 3, pp.2030–2035. New York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers.
CleggSJ. A review of regenerative braking systems. Working Paper 471, Institute of Transport Studies, University of Leeds, UK, 1996.
84.
LiPYVan de VenJDSanckenC. Open accumulator concept for compact fluid power energy storage. In: ASME 2007 international mechanical engineering congress and exposition, Seattle, WA, USA, 11–15 November 2007, pp.127–140. New York: ASME.
85.
PourmovahedAOtisDR. An experimental thermal time-constant correlation for hydraulic accumulators. Trans ASME, J Dynamic Systems Measmt Control1990; 112: 116–121, 1990.
86.
WuPLuoNFronczakFJBeachleyNH. Fuel economy and operating characteristics of a hydropneumatic energy storage automobile. SAE paper 851678, 1985.
87.
MidgleyWJBCebonD. Comparison of regenerative braking technologies for heavy vehicles. Technical Report, University of Cambridge, UK, 2010.
88.
PourmovahedABeachleyNHFronczakFJ. Modeling of a hydraulic energy regeneration system: Part II – experimental program. Trans ASME, J Dynamic Systems Measmt Control1992; 114: 160–165.
89.
PourmovahedABeachleyNHFronczakFJ. Modeling of a hydraulic energy regeneration system: Part I – analytical treatment. Trans ASME, J Dynamic Systems Measmt Control1992; 114: 155–159.
EhsanMRampenWHSSalterSH. Modeling of digital-displacement pump–motors and their application as hydraulic drives for nonuniform loads. Trans ASME, J Dynamic Systems Measmt Control2000; 122: 210–215.
AchtenPAJ. The hydrid transmission. SAE paper 2007-01-4152, 2007.
94.
AchtenPAJ. Variable hydraulic transformer. Des News2002; 58: 48.
95.
HitchcoxAL. Floating cups instead of pistons. Hydraulics Pneumatics2006; September: 16–17.
96.
WuBLinC-CFilipiZ. Optimal power management for a hydraulic hybrid delivery truck. Veh System Dynamics2004; 42; 23–40.
97.
HallRKargulJJ. Hydraulic hybrid promises big savings for UPS. Hydraulics Pneumatics2006; 59: 42–45.
98.
FilipiZLoucaLDaranB. Combined optimisation of design and power management of the hydraulic hybrid propulsion system for the 6 × 6 medium truck. Int J Heavy Vehicle Systems2004; 11: 372–402.
99.
ToulsonER. Evaluation of a hybrid hydraulic launch assist system for use in small road vehicles. In: IEEE international symposium on industrial electronics, Cambridge, UK, 30 June–2 July 2008, pp.967–972. New York: IEEE.
100.
WicksFMaleszweskiJWrightCZarybnickyJ. Analysis of compressed air regenerative braking and a thermally enhanced option. In: 37th intersociety energy conversion engineering conference, Washington, DC, USA, 29–31 July 2004, pp.406–411. New York: IEEE.
MidgleyWJBCebonD. Architecture of regenerative braking systems for heavy goods vehicles. In: 10th international symposium on advanced vehicle control, Loughborough, UK, 22–26 August 2010, vol. 10, paper no. 192. Tokyo: Japan Society of Automotive Engineers.
