Social and cultural studies of science revolutionized our understanding of science during the last quarter of the 20th century. This achievement has been accomplished in the face of great resistance and at great cost to the critics and theorists of science. In this paper, we explore some of the reasons for the resistance to and costs of analyzing science as a social fact. At the same time, we try to regain some of the momentum science studies achieved in the 1960s and 1970s. Our approach is to consider the consequences of bringing science into the dialogue on orientalism and occidentalism. We discuss the invention of science in terms of the traditions against or in opposition to which it was invented. Science, no matter how we define it, is intertwined with the industrial, and military technologies that grounded European movement into and around the world. Social theory is not only a route to critique and theory in science studies, but also a route for saving science as an intellectual enterprise.
Barber, B. (1952) Science and the Social Order. New York: The Free Press.
2.
Bridgman, P. (1950) Reflections of a Physicist.New York: Philosophical Library.
3.
Burke, K. (1969/1945) The Grammar of Motives.Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
4.
Butler, J. (1993) Bodies that Matter.New York: Routledge.
5.
Carrier, J.G. (1995) ‘Introduction’, in J.G. Carrier (ed.) Occidentalism: Images of the West, pp. 18–32. New York: Oxford University Press.
6.
Clifford, J. (1988) The Predicament of Culture.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
7.
Collins, P.H. (1990) Black Feminist Thought.New York: Routledge.
8.
Crosby, A.W. Jr (1972) The Columbian Exchange.Westport, CT: Greenwood.
9.
Crosby, A.W. Jr (1986) Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansionism of Europe, 900–1900.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
10.
Derrida, J. (1984) ‘Deconstruction and the Other’, in R. Kearney (ed.) Dialogues with Contemporary Continental Thinkers, pp. 105–126. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
11.
Diamond, J. (1998) Guns, Germs, and Steel.New York: W.W. Norton & Co.
12.
Douglas, Mary (1966) Purity and Danger.London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
13.
Dupre, J. (1993) The Disorder of Things.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
14.
Elzinga, A. (1993) ‘Science as the Continuation of Politics by Other Means’, in T. Brante, S. Fuller and W. Lynch (eds) Controversial Science: From Content to Contention, pp. 127–152. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
15.
Fabian, J. (1983) Time and the Other.New York: Columbia University Press.
16.
Foucault, M. (1972) The Archaeology of Knowledge.New York: Pantheon Books.
17.
Frank, A.G. (1998) ReOrient: Global Economy in the Asian Age.Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
18.
Galison, P. and D.J. Stump (eds) (1996) The Disunity of Science: Boundaries, Contexts, and Power.Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
19.
Goonatilake, S. (1998) Toward a Global Science.Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
20.
Gross, P.R. and N. Levitt (1994) Higher Superstition.Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
21.
Hacking, I. (1983) Representing and Intervening.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
22.
Haraway, D. (1989) Primate Visions: Gender, Race, and Nature in the World of Modern Science. New York: Routledge.
23.
Hourani, A.H. (1947) Minorities in the Arab World.London: Oxford University Press.
24.
Knorr-Cetina, K. (1999) Epistemic Cultures: How the Sciences Make Knowledge. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
25.
Kuhn, T.S. (1972) The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 2nd edn.Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
26.
Kumar, P.V.S. (1993) ‘Biotechnology and Biodiversity: A Dialectical Relationship’, Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research2: 523–532.
27.
Laqueur, T. (1990) Making Sex: Body and Gender from the Greeks to Freud. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
28.
Loughlin, J. and S. Restivo (1997) ‘Race Class and Gender in Science Studies’, in J. Barmark and M. Hallberg (eds) Festschrift to Professor Aant Elzinga on his 60th Birthday, pp. 57–75. Gothenburg: Theory of Science Department, University of Gothenburg.
29.
McNeill, W. (1963) The Rise of the West.Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
30.
Meillassoux, C. (1964) Anthropologie Èconomique des Gourod de la CoÙte d'Ivoire. Paris: Mouton.
31.
Meillassoux, C. (1974) L'Esclavage dans l'Afrique prÈ-coloniale.Paris: Maspero.
32.
Meillassoux, C. (1981) Maidens, Meal and Money: Capitalism and the Domestic Community.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
33.
Mudimbe, V.Y. (1988) The Invention of Africa: Gnosis, Philosophy, and the Order of Knowledge.Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
34.
Price, S. (1989) Primitive Art in Civilized Places.Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
35.
Pyenson, L. (1993) ‘The Ideology of Western Rationality: History of Science and the European Civilizing Mission’, Science and Education2: 329–343.
36.
Restivo, S. (1983) The Social Relations of Physics, Mysticism, and Mathematics. Dordrecht: D. Reidel/Kluwer.
37.
Restivo, S. and W.K. Bauchspies (1997) ‘How to Criticize Science and Maintain your Sanity’, Science as Culture6(3/28): 396–413.
38.
Richards, Paul and Guido Ruivenkamp (1996) ‘New Tools for Conviviality: Society and Biotechnology’, in P. Descola and G. Palsson (eds) Nature and Society: Anthropological Perspectives, pp. 275–295. New York: Routledge.
39.
Root, D. (1996) Cannibal Culture: Art, Appropriation, and the Commodification of Difference.Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Schiebinger, L. (1989) The Mind has No Sex.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
42.
Schiebinger, L. (1993) Nature's Body: Gender in the Making of Modern Science. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.
43.
Schrodinger, E.C. (1957) Science and Theory and Man.New York: Dover.
44.
Seabrook, J. (1993) ‘Biotechnology and Genetic Diversity’, Race and Class34(3): 15–30.
45.
Smith, B. (1985) European Vision and the South Pacific, 2nd edn.New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
46.
Smith, D.E. (1999) Writing the Social.Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
47.
Sowell, T. (1998) Conquests and Cultures: An International History.New York: Basic Books.
48.
Strathern, M. (1992) Reproducing the Future: Anthropology, Knowledge and the New Reproductive Technologies.Manchester: Manchester University Press.
49.
Suppes, P. (1984) Probabilistic Metaphysics.Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
50.
Thomas, N. (1992a) ‘The Inversion of Tradition’, American Ethnologist19: 213–232.
51.
Thomas, N. (1992b) ‘Substantivization and Anthropological Discourse: The Transformation of Practices into Institutions in Neotraditional Pacific Societies’, in J.G. Carrier (ed.) History and Tradition in Melanesian Anthropology, pp. 64–85. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
52.
Torgovnick, M. (1990) Gone Primitive: Savage Intellects, Modern Lives.Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
53.
Traweek, S. (1988) Beamtimes and Lifetimes: The World of High Energy Physicists. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
54.
Trexler, R.C. (1995) Sex and Conquest: Gendered Violence, Political Order, and the European Conquest of the Americas.Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
55.
Turner, B. (1978) Marx and the End of Orientalism.London: George Allen & Unwin.
56.
Wagner, R. (1981) The Invention of Culture. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.
57.
Withey, L. (1987) Voyages of Discovery: Captain Cook and the Exploration of the Pacific.Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
58.
Yegenoglu, M. (1998) Colonial Fantasies: Toward a Feminist Reading of Orientalism, pp. 64–85.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
