This article presents an empirical evaluation of the current debate on the changing nature of volunteering in the light of sociological modernization theories. Focusing on the cultural bases of volunteerism, a representative sample of 652 Flemish Red Cross volunteers is grouped according to a multidimensional set of attitudinal measures. The Unconditional, Critical, Reliable, and Distant dispositional clusters that emerge from the analysis cohere with distinct patterns of volunteering, ranging from core to peripheral volunteer positions. Furthermore, both cultural modernization indicators and organizational features account for the dispositional variations observed. Although the analysis conducted clearly reveals the surplus value of a multidimensional sight on volunteering, the research outcomes warn against a too-strong focus on “grand modernization narratives.” The cultural bases of Flemish Red Cross volunteering may best be understood in terms of a threefold dynamic: Differences in cultural frames of reference intervene with life cycle effects and processes of organizational socialization.
Aldenderfer, M. S., & Blashfield, R. K. (1984). Cluster analysis. London: Sage.
2.
Allison, P. D. (1999). Logistic regression using the SAS system. Theory and application. Cary, NC: SAS Institute.
3.
American Association for Public Opinion Research. (2004). Standard definitions: Final dispositions of case codes and outcome rates for surveys (3rd ed.). Lenexa, KS: Author. Retrieved from http://www.aapor.org/pdfs/standarddefs2004.pdf
4.
Anheier, H. K., & Salamon, L. M. (1999). Volunteering in cross-national perspective: Initial comparisons. Law and Contemporary Problems, 62(4), 43-65.
5.
Bailey, K. D. (1994). Typologies and taxonomies. An introduction to classification techniques. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage.
6.
Beck, U. (1992). Risk society. Towards a new modernity. London: Sage.
7.
Beck, U. (1997). Kinder der Freiheit: Wider das Lamento über den Werteverfall [Freedom’s children: Once again the lamentation about the value decline]. In U. Beck (Hrsg.), Kinder Der Freiheit (pp. 9-33). Frankfurt am Main, Germany: Suhrkamp Verlag.
8.
Beck, U., & Beck-Gernsheim, E. (1996). Individualization and “precarious freedoms”: Perspectives and controversies of a subject-orientated sociology. In P. Helaas, S. Lash, & P. Morris (Eds.), Detraditionalization (pp. 23-48). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
9.
Beck, U., & Beck-Gernsheim, E. (2002). Individualization. London: Sage.
10.
Beck, U., Giddens, A., & Lash, S. (1994). Reflexive modernization. Politics, tradition and aesthetics in the modern social order. Cambridge, UK: Polity.
11.
Beher, K., Liebig, R., & Rauschenbach, T. (2000). Strukturwandel des Ehrenamtes. Gemeinwohlorientierung im Modernisierungsprozess [Structural changes in voluntary service. Community orientations under the banner of the modernization process]. Munich, Germany: Weinheim.
12.
Bennett, W. L. (1998). The uncivic culture: Communication, identity, and the rise of lifestyle politics. Political Science and Politics, 31(4), 741-761.
13.
Billiet, J. B. (2002). De kiezers van de CVP in de jaren negentig [The voters of the Christian Democratic Party (CVP) in the nineties] (ISPO Bulletin 2002/47). Leuven, Belgium: Catholic University of Leuven, Department of Sociology.
14.
Billiet, J. B., Swyngedouw, M., Depickere, A., & Meersseman, E. (2001). Structurele determinanten van het stemgedrag en culturele kenmerken van de kiezerskorpsen in Vlaanderen. De verkiezingen van 1999 [Structural determinants of voting behavior and cultural characteristics of the electorate in Flanders. The elections of 1999] (ISPO-bulletin 2001/41). Leuven, Belgium: Catholic University of Leuven, Department of Sociology.
15.
Brömme, N., & Strasser, H. (2001). Gespaltene Bürgergesellschaft? Die Ungleichen Folgen des Strukturwandels von Engagement und Participation [Divided civil society? The unequal consequences of structural changes in commitment and participation]. Aus Politik Und Zeitgeschichte, B25-26, 6-14.
16.
Cameron, H. (1999). Are members volunteers? An exploration of the concept of membership drawing upon studies of the local church. Voluntary Action, 1(2), 53-65.
17.
Clary, E. G., Snyder, M., Ridge R. D., Copeland J., Stukas A. A., Haugen J., et al. (1998). Understanding and assessing the motivations of volunteers: A functional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(6), 1516-1530.
18.
Cnaan, R. A., & Amrofell, L. (1994). Mapping volunteer activity. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 23(4), 335-351.
19.
Cnaan, R. A., Handy, F., & Wadsworth, M. (1996). Defining who is a volunteer: Conceptual and empirical considerations. Nonprofit and Voluntary Action Quarterly, 25(3), 364-383.
20.
Dekker, P., & van den Broek, A. (1998). Civil society in comparative perspective: Involvement in voluntary associations in North America and Western Europe. Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 9(1), 11-38.
21.
Dekker, P., & Hooghe, M. (2003). De burger-nachtwaker. Kwantitatieve en kwalitatieve verschuivingen in het participatiegedrag van de Nederlandse en Vlaamse bevolking [The citizen-night watchman. Quantitative and qualitative transitions in the participation behavior of the Dutch and Flemish population]. Sociologische Gids, 50(2), 156-181.
22.
Eckstein, S. (2001). Community as gift-giving: Collectivistic roots of volunteerism. American Sociological Review, 66(6), 829-851.
23.
Erlinghagen, M. (2000). Arbeitslosigkeit und ehrenamtliche Tätigkeit im Zeitverlauf. Eine Längsschnittanalyse der westdeutschen Stichprobe des Sozio-oekonomischen Panels (SOEP) für die Jahre 1992 und 1996 [Unemployment and voluntary action across time. Alongitudinal analysis of the West German sample of the socioeconomic panel (SOEP) between 1992 and 1996]. Kölner Zeitschrift Für Soziologie Und Sozialpsychologie, 52 (2), 291-310.
24.
Gaskin, K. (1998). Vanishing volunteers: Are young people losing interest in volunteering?Voluntary Action, 1(1), 33-43.
25.
Giddens, A. (1991). Modernity and self-identity. Self and society in the late modern age. Cambridge, UK: Polity.
26.
Giddens, A. (1994). Beyond left and right. The future of radical politics. Cambridge, UK: Polity.
27.
Goss, K. A. (1999). Volunteering and the long civic generation. Nonprofit and Voluntary Action Quarterly, 28(4), 378-415.
28.
Grube, J. A., & Piliavin, J. A. (2000). Role identity, organizational experiences, and volunteer performance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26(9), 1108-1119.
29.
Hacket, A., & Mutz, G. (2002). Empirische Befunde zum bürgerschaftlichen Engagement [Empirical findings on civic engagement]. Aus Politik Und Zeitgeschichte, B9, 39-46.
30.
Hajnal, I., & Loosveldt, G. (1998). EDACLUS: Enkele SAS-macro’s voor exploratieve data analyse met behulp van clusteranalyse [EDACLUS: Some SAS macros for explorative data analysis by means of cluster analysis] (DA/1998-12). Leuven, Belgium: Catholic University of Leuven, Department of Sociology.
31.
Hardy, M. A. (1993). Regression with dummy variables. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
32.
Heelas, P. (1996). Introduction: Detraditionalization and its rivals. In P. Heelas, S. Lash, & P. Morris (Eds.), Detraditionalization (pp. 1-20). Cambridge, UK: Blackwell.
Heinze, R. G., & Olk, T. (1999). Vom Ehrenamt zum bürgerschaftlichen Engagement. Trends des begrifflichen und gesellschaftlichen Strukturwandels [From “honorary office” to “civic involvement.” Conceptual and sociostructural trends]. In E. Kistler, H.-H. Noll, & E. Priller (Eds.), Perspektiven Gesellschaftlichen Zusammenhalts. Empirische Befunde, Praxiserfahrungen, Messkonzepte (pp. 77-100). Berlin, Germany: Sigma.
35.
Hendricks, J., & Peters, C. B. (1973). The ideal type and sociological theory. Acta Sociologica, 16(1), 31-40.
36.
Hooghe, M. (2003a). Participation in voluntary associations and value indicators: The effect of current and previous participation experiences. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 32(1), 47-69.
37.
Hooghe, M. (2003b). Why should we be bowling alone? Results from a Belgian survey on civic participation. Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 14(1), 41-59.
38.
Hustinx, L. (2001). Individualisation and new styles of youth volunteering: An empirical exploration. Voluntary Action, 3(2), 57-76.
39.
Hustinx, L. (2003). Reflexive modernity and styles of volunteering. The case of the Flemish Red Cross volunteers. Doctoral dissertation, Catholic University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
40.
Hustinx, L., & Lammertyn, F. (2003). Collective and reflexive styles of volunteering: Asociological modernization perspective. Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 14(2), 167-187.
41.
Jakob, G. (1993). Zwischen Dienst und Zelbstbezug [Between service and self-realization]. Opladen, Germany: Leske + Budrich.
42.
Janssens, M. (2003). Weights: From sample to weighted sample. Unpublished paper, Catholic University of Brussels/Catholic University of Leuven, Brussels and Leuven, Belgium.
43.
Kalton, G., & Kasprzyk D. (1986). The treatment of missing survey data. Survey Methodology, 12(1), 1-16.
44.
Keupp, H. (2001).Bürgerschafliches Engagement: Ein Motor posttraditionaler Ligaturenbildung? [Civic engagement: A driving force for the building of posttraditional ties?] In R. G. Heinze & T. Olk (Hrsg.), Bürgerengagement in Deutschland. Bestandsaufnahme Und Perspektiven (pp. 69-92). Opladen, Germany: Leske + Budrich.
45.
Klages, H. (1998). Engagement und Engagementpotential in Deutschland [Current and prospective commitment in Germany]. Aus Politik Und Zeitgeschichte, B38, 29-38.
46.
Kühnlein, I. (1998).Motivlagen, Sinnquellen und Identitätsrelevanz erwerbsarbeitsunabhängiger Sozialer Tätigkeiten. Teil der Expertise von Heinze, R. G., & Keupp, H.: Gesellschaftliche Bedeutung von Tätigkeiten Ausserhalb der Erwerbsarbeit [Unpaid social activities: Motivation, meaning, and identity. Part of the expertise of Heinze, R. G., & Keupp, H.: The social meaning of activities outside paid labor]. In Kommission für Zukunftfragen der Freistaaten Bayern und Massnahmen, Erwerbstätigkeit und Arbeitslosigkeit in Deutschland—Entwicklung, Ursachen und Massnahmen. Gutachten im Auftrag der Kommission für Zukunftsfragen. Anlageband 3. Bonn, Germany: Kommission für Zukunftfragender Freistaaten Bayern und Massnahmen.
47.
Kühnlein, I., & Mutz, G. (1999). Individualisierung und bürgerschaftliches Engagement in der Tätigkeitsgesellschaft [Individualization and civic engagement in the new work society]. In E. Kistler, H.-H. Noll, & E. Priller (Eds.), Perspektiven Gesellschaftlichen Zusammenhalts. Empirische Befunde, Praxiserfahrungen, Messkonzepte (pp. 291-306). Berlin, Germany: Sigma.
48.
Lash, S. (1994). Reflexivity and its doubles: Structure, aesthetics, community. In U. Beck, A. Giddens, & S. Lash, Reflexive modernization. Politics, tradition and aesthetics in the modern social order (pp.110-173). Cambridge, UK: Polity.
49.
Lois, J. (1999). Socialization to heroism: Individualism and collectivism in a voluntary search and rescue group. Social Psychology Quarterly, 62(2), 117-135.
50.
Long, J. S. (1997). Regression models for categorical and limited dependent variables. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
51.
Maloney, W. A., & Jordan, G. (1997). The rise of protest business in Britain. In J. van Deth (Ed.), Private groups and public life. Social participation, voluntary associations and political involvement in representative democracies (pp.107-124). London: Routledge.
52.
Meijs, L. C. P. M., & Hoogstad, E. (2001). New ways of managing volunteers: Combining membership management and programme management. Voluntary Action, 3(3), 41-61.
53.
Milligan, G. W. (1996). Clustering validation: Results and implications for applied analyses. In P. Arabie, L. J. Hubert, & G. De Soete (Eds.), Clustering and classification (pp. 341-375). River Edge, NJ: World Scientific.
54.
Olk, T. (1989). Vom ‘alten’ zum ‘neuen’ Ehrenamt. Ehrenamtliches soziales Engagement ausserhalb etablierter Träger [From “old” to “new” volunteering. Voluntary involvement outside established settings]. Blätter Der Wohlfahrtspflege, 136, 7-10.
55.
Olk, T. (1990). Förderung und Unterstützung freiwilliger socialer Tätigkeiten—Eine neue Aufgabe für den Sozialstaat [Promoting and supporting volunteering: Anew task for the welfare state]. In R. Heinze & C. Offe (Eds.), Formen Der Eigenarbeit (pp. 224-265). Opladen, Germany: Leske + Budrich.
56.
Omoto, A. M., & Snyder, M. (1995). Sustained helping without obligation: Motivation, longevity of service, and perceived attitude change among AIDS volunteers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68(4), 671-686.
57.
Pampel, F. C. (2000). Logistic regression: A primer. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
58.
Passy, F., & Giugni, M. (2001). Social networks and individual perceptions: Explaining differential participation in social movements. Sociological Forum, 16(1), 123-153.
59.
Pearce, J. L. (1993). Volunteers: The organizational behavior of unpaid workers. London: Routledge.
60.
Putnam, R. D. (1995). Bowling alone: America’s declining social capital. Journal of Democracy, 6(1), 65-78.
61.
Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. New York: Touchstone.
62.
Rommel, W., Opdebeeck, S., Lammertyn, F., & Bouverne-De Bie, M. (1997). Vrijwillige inzet in Vlaanderen. Een exploratie [Volunteering in Flanders. An exploration]. Leuven, Belgium:LUCAS.
63.
Safrit, R. D., & Merrill, M. (2000). Management implications of contemporary trends in voluntarism in the United States and Canada. Voluntary Action, 3(1), 73-88.
64.
Snyder, M. (1993). Basic research and practical problems: The promise of a “functional” personality and social psychology. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 19(3), 251-264.
65.
Stebbins, R. A. (1996). Volunteering: A serious leisure perspective. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 25(2), 211-224.
66.
Stokes, M. E., Davis, C. S., & Koch, G. G. (1995). Categorical data analysis using the SAS system. Cary, NC: SAS Institute.
67.
Stolle, D., & Hooghe, M. (2004). Inaccurate, exceptional, one-sided or irrelevant? The debate about the alleged decline of social capital and civic engagement in Western societies. British Journal of Political Science, 34(3), 703-721.
68.
Sundeen, R. A. (1992). Differences in personal goals and attitudesamong volunteers. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 21(3), 271-291.
69.
Swyngedouw, M. (1989). De keuze van de kiezer. Naar een verbetering van de schattingen van verschuivingen en partijvoorkeur bij opeenvolgende verkiezingen en peilingen [The choice of the voter. Toward an improvement of estimations of shifts and party preferences in successive elections and polls]. Leuven, Belgium: Catholic University of Leuven, Department of Sociology, Sociologisch Onderzoeksinstituut.
70.
Tourangeau, R., Rips, L. J., & Rasinski, K. (2000). The psychology of survey response. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
71.
van Daal, H. J. (1994). Hedendaags vrijwilligerswerk: Gedaanten, identiteit en aantrekkingskracht [Volunteering today: Forms, identity, and attraction]. In P. Dekker (Ed.), Civil society: Verkenningen van een perspectief op vrijwilligerswerk (pp. 201-220). Rijswijk, Netherlands: Sociaal en Cultureel Planbureau.
72.
Verbelen, J. (2002, June). Data quality and bipolar scales: Response behavior related to age and education. Paper presented at the World Association for Public Opinion Research Fourth Seminar on ‘Quality Criteria in Survey Research,’ Cadenabbia, Italy.
73.
Voyé, L. (1995). Pour revisiter le bénévolat. Propos hétérodoxes [Reconsidering volunteerism. Heterodox proposals]. Swiss Sociological Review, 21(2), 317-340.
74.
Weber, M. (1949). Methodology of the social sciences. New York: Free Press.
75.
Wilkinson, H., & Mulgan, G. (1995). Freedom’s children: Work, relationships and politics for 18-34 year olds in Britain today. London: Demos.
76.
Wuthnow, R. (1988). The restructuring of American religion: Society and faith since World War II. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
77.
Wuthnow, R. (1996). Poor Richard’s principle: Rediscovering the American dream through the moral dimension of work, business, and money. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
78.
Wuthnow, R. (1998). Loose connections: Joining together in America’s fragmented communities. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
