This study examines whether social engagement at the time of retirement is associated with better cognitive function and slower cognitive decline.
Methods
Data come from 10 waves of the Health and Retirement Study, linked with data from the Consumption and Activities Mail Survey (CAMS). Respondents included those who had transitioned from working full-time to partial or full retirement. Social engagement was measured across 5 social activities and grouped into 4 categories.
Results
In fully adjusted regression models, higher frequency of participation in social activities was associated with higher cognitive function at the time of retirement but not with slower cognitive decline after retirement. An increase in social activities after retirement was not associated with better cognitive function or slower cognitive decline.
Discussion
These findings do not offer evidence that higher frequency of social engagement or increases in social engagement after retirement protect against post-retirement cognitive decline.
Alvarez-BuenoC.Cavero-RedondoI.Jimenez-LopezE.Visier-AlfonsoM. E.Sequi-DominguezI.Martinez-VizcainoV. (2021). Effect of retirement on cognitive function: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 78(10), 761–768. https://doi.org/10.1136/oemed-2020-106892
2.
ArmstrongN. M.TomS. E.HarratiA.CasalettoK.PaJ.Arce RenteriaM.GuY.RajanK. B.SchupfN.FieoR.WeuveJ.SimonsickE. M.ManlyJ. J.SternY.ZahodneL. B. (2022). Longitudinal relationship of leisure activity engagement with cognitive performance among non-demented, community-dwelling older adults. The Gerontologist, 62(3), 352–363. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnab046
3.
BakerL. A.CahalinL. P.GerstK.BurrJ. A. (2005). Productive activities and subjective well-being among older adults: The influence of number of activities and time commitment. Social Indicators Research, 73(3), 431–458. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-005-0805-6
BrandtJ.SpencerM.FolsteinM. (1988). The telephone interview for cognitive status. Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology, and Behavioral Neurology, 1(1), 111–117.
7.
BuchmanA. S.BoyleP. A.WilsonR. S.FleischmanD. A.LeurgansS.BennettD. A. (2009). Association between late-life social activity and motor decline in older adults. Archives of Internal Medicine, 169(12), 1139–1146. PM:19546415. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinternmed.2009.135
8.
ChaudhuryH.OswaldF. (2019). Advancing understanding of person-environment interaction in later life: One step further. Journal of Aging Studies, 51(1), Article 100821. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaging.2019.100821
9.
CloustonS. A. P.DenierN. (2017). Mental retirement and health selection: Analyses from the US health and retirement study. Social Science and Medicine, 178(1), 78–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.01.019
10.
CoeN. B.von GaudeckerH. M.LindeboomM.MaurerJ. (2012). The effect of retirement on cognitive functioning. Health Economics, 21(8), 913–927. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.1771
11.
CosentinoS.SternY. (2013). Consideration of cognitive reserve. In RavdinL. D.KatzenH. L. (Eds.), Handbook on the neuropsychology of aging and dementia (pp. 11–23): Springer.
FinlayJ.EspositoM.LangaK. M.JuddS.ClarkeP. (2022). Cognability: An ecological theory of neighborhoods and cognitive aging. Social Science and Medicine, 309(1), Article 115220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.115220
14.
GarrousteC.PerdrixE. (2021). Is there a consensus on the health consequences of retirement? A literature review. Journal of Economic Surveys, 36(4), 841–879. https://doi.org/10.1111/joes.12466
15.
GlassT. A.De LeonC. F. M.BassukS. S.BerkmanL. F. (2006). Social engagement and depressive symptoms in late life: Longitudinal findings. Journal of Aging and Health, 18(4), 604–628. https://doi.org/10.1177/0898264306291017
16.
GuoJ.SongS. (2023). Associations of height loss with cognitive decline and incident dementia in adults aged 50 years and older. Journals of Gerontology Series A. Biological Sciences Medical Sciences, 78(8), 1445–1452. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/glad054
17.
HultschD. F.HertzogC.SmallB. J.DixonR. A. (1999). Use it or lose it: Engaged lifestyle as a buffer of cognitive decline in aging?Psychology and Aging, 14(2), 245–263. https://doi.org/10.1037//0882-7974.14.2.245
18.
JamesB. D.LamarM.Lange-MaiaB. S.CapuanoA. W.BarnesL. L. (2021). Social engagement and cognitive decline in older African-Americans: The minority aging research study. Alzheimer's and Dementia, 17(S10), Article e050930. https://doi.org/10.1002/alz.050930
19.
JankeM.PayneL.Van PuymbroeckM. A. (2008). The role of informal and formal leisure activities in the disablement process. International Journal of Aging & Human Development, 67(3), 231–257. https://doi.org/10.2190/AG.67.3.c
20.
KahanaE.BhattaT.LovegreenL. D.KahanaB.MidlarskyE. (2013). Altruism, helping, and volunteering: Pathways to well-being in late life. Journal of Aging and Health, 25(1), 159–187. https://doi.org/10.1177/0898264312469665
21.
KhalailaR.DinticaC.YaffeK. (2024). The association between cognitive reserve and cognitive trajectories among older adults. Innovation in Aging, 8(2), igae014. https://doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igae014
22.
KimJ.MoenP. (2002). Retirement transitions, gender, and psychological well-being a life-course, ecological model. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 57(3), 212–222. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/57.3.P212
23.
KruegerK. R.WilsonR. S.KamenetskyJ. M.BarnesL. L.BieniasJ. L.BennettD. A. (2009). Social engagement and cognitive function in old age. Experimental Aging Research, 35(1), 45–60. PM:19173101. https://doi.org/10.1080/03610730802545028
24.
LamarM.JamesB. D.GloverC. M.CapuanoA. W.McSorleyV. E.WilsonR. S.BarnesL. L. (2022). Social engagement and all-cause mortality: A focus on participants of the minority aging research study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 63(5), 700–707. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2022.05.005
25.
LeeY.ChiI.PalinkasL. A. (2019). Retirement, leisure activity engagement, and cognition among older adults in the United States. Journal of Aging and Health, 31(7), 1212–1234. https://doi.org/10.1177/0898264318767030
26.
LuoM.DingD.BaumanA.NeginJ.PhongsavanP. (2020). Social engagement pattern, health behaviors and subjective well-being of older adults: An international perspective using WHO-SAGE survey data. BMC Public Health, 20(1), 99. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-019-7841-7
Morrow-HowellN.PutnamM.LeeY. S.GreenfieldJ. C.InoueM.ChenH. (2014). An investigation of activity profiles of older adults. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 69(5), 809–821. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbu002
29.
OpdebeeckC.MartyrA.ClareL. (2016). Cognitive reserve and cognitive function in healthy older people: A meta-analysis. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 23(1), 40–60. https://doi.org/10.1080/13825585.2015.1041450
30.
RadloffL. S. (1977) (In this issue). The CES-D scale. A self-report depression scale for research in the general population.Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401. https://doi.org/10.1177/014662167700100306
31.
RajanK. B.BarnesL. L.SkarupskiK. A.Mendes de LeonC. F.WilsonR. S.EvansD. A. (2015). Physical and cognitive activities as deterrents of cognitive decline in a biracial population sample. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 23(12), 1225–1233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2015.07.008
32.
ReedB. R.MungasD.FariasS. T.HarveyD.BeckettL.WidamanK.HintonL.DeCarliC. (2010). Measuring cognitive reserve based on the decomposition of episodic memory variance. Brain, 133(Pt 8), 2196–2209. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awq154
33.
SabbathE. L.LubbenJ.GoldbergM.ZinsM.BerkmanL. F. (2015). Social engagement across the retirement transition among “young-old” adults in the French GAZEL cohort. European Journal of Ageing, 12(4), 311–320. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10433-015-0348-x
34.
SandoS. B.MelquistS.CannonA.HuttonM.SletvoldO.SaltvedtI.WhiteL. R.LydersenS.AaslyJ. (2008). Risk-reducing effect of education in Alzheimer's disease. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 23(11), 1156–1162. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.2043
35.
SommetN.WeissmanD. L.CheutinN.ElliotA. J. (2023). How many participants do I need to test an interaction? Conducting an appropriate power analysis and achieving sufficient power to detect an interaction. Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science, 6(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/25152459231178728
36.
SonJ.SungP. (2023). Does a reciprocal relationship exist between social engagement and depression in later life?Aging & Mental Health, 27(1), 70–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2021.2024794
37.
ThomasP. A. (2012). Trajectories of social engagement and mortality in late life. Journal of Aging and Health, 24(4), 547–568. https://doi.org/10.1177/0898264311432310
38.
van ZonS. K.BultmannU.ReijneveldS. A.de LeonC. F. M. (2016). Functional health decline before and after retirement: A longitudinal analysis of the health and retirement study. Social Science & Medicine, 170(1), 26–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.10.002
39.
VigezziG. P.GaettiG.GianfrediV.FrascellaB.GentileL.d'ErricoA.StucklerD.RicceriF.CostaG.OdoneA.Italian Working Group on Retirement and Health. (2021). Transition to retirement impact on health and lifestyle habits: Analysis from a nationwide Italian cohort. BMC Public Health, 21(1), 1670. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-11670-3
40.
WangH. X.KarpA.WinbladB.FratiglioniL. (2002). Late-life engagement in social and leisure activities is associated with a decreased risk of dementia: A longitudinal study from the kungsholmen project. American Journal of Epidemiology, 155(12), 1081–1087. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/155.12.1081
41.
WeuveJ.BarnesL. L.Mendes de LeonC. F.RajanK. B.BeckT.AggarwalN. T.HebertL. E.BennettD. A.WilsonR. S.EvansD. A. (2018). Cognitive aging in black and white Americans: Cognition, cognitive decline, and incidence of Alzheimer Disease dementia. Epidemiology, 29(1), 151–159. https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0000000000000747
42.
WilliamsK. N.KemperS. (2010). Interventions to reduce cognitive decline in aging. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 48(5), 42–51. https://doi.org/10.3928/02793695-20100331-03
43.
ZhouS.SongS.JinY.ZhengZ. J. (2020). Prospective association between social engagement and cognitive impairment among middle-aged and older adults: Evidence from the China health and retirement longitudinal study. BMJ Open, 10(11), Article e040936. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-040936
