Objective: This study tries to investigate the association between two measures of poverty (subjective poverty and material deprivation) with depression and its underlying mechanism(s). Method: A total sample of 28,723 older adults aged 60 years and above was included from the Longitudinal Aging Study in India. Multivariable logistic regression models were used to estimate the association between poverty measures and depression after adjustment of control variables. The Karlson–Holm–Breen (KHB) method was used for mediation analysis to assess the indirect effect of functional, behavioral, and psycho-social factors between poverty measures and depression. Results: The findings suggested that “subjective poverty” has a significantly stronger impact on depression in comparison to material deprivation. Further, functional and psycho-social factors have significantly mediated the relationship between subjective poverty, material deprivation, and depression but are not favorable for behavioral components. Discussion: We believe that policymakers should reconsider the mental health aspects of poverty to promote healthy aging in India.
AchdutN.RefaeliT.Schwartz TayriT. M. (2021). Subjective poverty, material deprivation indices and psychological distress among young adults: The mediating role of social capital and usage of online social networks. Social Indicators Research, 158(3), 863–887. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-021-02729-0
2.
AdlerN. E.EpelE. S.CastellazzoG.IckovicsJ. R. (2000). Relationship of subjective and objective social status with psychological and physiological functioning: Preliminary data in healthy white women. Health Psychology, 19(6), 586–592. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.19.6.586
3.
AgarwalA.LubetA.MitgangE.MohantyS.BloomD. E. (2020). Population aging in India: Facts, issues, and options. (Vol 10162 pp, 289–311). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-0230-4_13
4.
BakkeliN. Z. (2020). Older adults’ mental health in China: Examining the relationship between income inequality and subjective wellbeing using panel data analysis. Journal of Happiness Studies, 21(4), 1349–1383. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-019-00130-w
5.
BarbaC.Cavalli-SforzaT.CutterJ.Darnton-HillI.DeurenbergP.Deurenberg-YupM., et al. (2004). Appropriate body-mass index for Asian Populations and its implications for policy and intervention strategies. Lancet, 363(9403), 157–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(03)15268-3
6.
BarmanP.PandeyM.BramhnakarM.TyagiR.RaiB. (2024). Associations between social deprivation, cognitive heath, and depression among older adults in India: Evidence from the longitudinal aging study in India (LASI). Global Social Welfare. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40609-024-00336-8
BartlettM. S. (1950). Tests of significance in factor analysis. British Journal of Psychology.
9.
BincyK.LogarajM.RamrajB. (2021). Depression and its associated factors among the older adults in rural, Tamilnadu, India. Clinical Epidemiology and Global Health, 10(2021), Article 100677. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cegh.2020.100677
10.
BloomD. E.CanningD.FinkG. (2011). Implications of population ageing for economic growth. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 26(4), 583–612. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxrep/grq038
11.
BraekenJ.Van AssenM. A. L. M. (2017). An empirical Kaiser criterion. Psychological Methods, 22(3), 450–466. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000074
12.
BrunelloG.FortM.SchneeweisN.Winter-EbmerR. (2016). The causal effect of education on health: What is the role of health behaviors?Health Economics, 25(3), 314–336. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.3141
13.
CacioppoJ. T.HughesM. E.WaiteL. J.HawkleyL. C.ThistedR. A. (2006). Loneliness as a specific risk factor for depressive symptoms: Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses. Psychology and Aging, 21(1), 140–151. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.21.1.140
14.
ChangQ.PengC.GuoY.CaiZ.YipP. (2020). Mechanisms connecting objective and subjective poverty to mental health: Serial mediation roles of negative life events and social support. Social Science and Medicine, 265(2020), Article 113308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113308
15.
CheungK. C. K.ChouK. L. (2019a). Poverty, deprivation, and depressive symptoms among older adults in Hong Kong. Aging and Mental Health, 23(1), 22–29. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2017.1394438
16.
CheungK. C. K.ChouK. L. (2019b). Poverty, deprivation and life satisfaction among Hong Kong older persons. Ageing and Society, 39(4), 703–721. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X17001143
17.
ChoiE.HanK. M.ChangJ.LeeY. J.ChoiK. W.HanC.HamB. J. (2021). Social participation and depressive symptoms in community-dwelling older adults: Emotional social support as a mediator. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 137(2021), 589–596. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2020.10.043
18.
ChristiansenJ.LarsenF. B.LasgaardM. (2016). Do stress, health behavior, and sleep mediate the association between loneliness and adverse health conditions among older people?Social Science and Medicine, 152(2016), 80–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.01.020
19.
ChungR. Y. N.ChungG. K. K.GordonD.WongS. Y. S.ChanD.LauM. K. W.TangV. M. Y.WongH. (2018). Deprivation is associated with worse physical and mental health beyond income poverty: A population-based household survey among Chinese adults. Quality of Life Research, 27(8), 2127–2135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-018-1863-y
20.
ColeM. G.DendukuriN. (2003). Risk factors for depression among elderly community subjects: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Psychiatry, 160(6), 1147–1156. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.160.6.1147
21.
DebnathA.SandoojaC.KishoreJ. (2023). Depression and associated factors among older adults in a north Indian state: A cross-sectional study. Cureus, 15(3), Article e35962. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.35962
22.
DevikrishnaN. B.MishraN. L.SinghA. (2024). Burden of undiagnosed depression among older adults in India: A population based study. BMC Psychiatry, 24(1), 330. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-05684-5
23.
Domènech-AbellaJ.LaraE.Rubio-ValeraM.OlayaB.MonetaM. V.Rico-UribeL. A.Ayuso-MateosJ. L.MundóJ.HaroJ. M. (2017). Loneliness and depression in the elderly: The role of social network. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol, 52(4), 381–390. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-017-1339-3
24.
Domènech-AbellaJ.MundóJ.LeonardiM.ChatterjiS.Tobiasz-AdamczykB.KoskinenS.Ayuso-MateosJ. L.HaroJ. M. (2018). The association between socioeconomic status and depression among older adults in Finland, Poland and Spain: A comparative cross-sectional study of distinct measures and pathways. Journal of Affective Disorders, 241(2018), 311–318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.08.077
FisherJ. D.JohnsonD. S.MarchandJ. T.SmeedingT. M.TorreyB. B. (2009). Identifying the poorest older Americans. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 64(6), 758–766. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbp022
GazmararianJ.BakerD.ParkerR.BlazerD. G. (2000). A multivariate analysis of factors associated with depression: Evaluating the role of health literacy as a potential contributor. Archives of Internal Medicine, 160(21), 3307–3314. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.160.21.3307
29.
HuT.ZhaoX.WuM.LiZ.LuoL.YangC.YangF. (2022). Prevalence of depression in older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. In: Psychiatry Research (311 pp 114511). Elsevier Ireland Ltd: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2022.114511
30.
IdaianiS.IndrawatiL. (2021). Functional status in relation to depression among elderly individuals in Indonesia: A cross- sectional analysis of the Indonesian national health survey 2018 among elderly individuals. BMC Public Health, 21(2021), 2332–2339. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-12260-z
KekäläinenT.LuchettiM.TerraccianoA.GamaldoA. A.MogleJ.LovettH. H.BrownJ.RantalainenT.SliwinskiM. J.SutinA. R. (2023). Physical activity and cognitive function: Moment - to - moment and day - to - day associations. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 20(2023), 137–213. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-023-01536-9
33.
KniftonL.InglisG. (2020). Poverty and mental health : Policy , practice and research implications. BJPsych Bulletin, 44(5), 193–196. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjb.2020.78
34.
KohlerU.KarlsonK. B.HolmA. (2011). Comparing coefficients of nested nonlinear probability models. STATA Journal, 11(3), 420–438. https://doi.org/10.1177/1536867x1101100306
35.
KosterA.BosmaH.KempenG. I. J. M.PenninxB. W. J. H.BeekmanA. T. F.DeegD. J. H.van EijkJ. T. M. (2006). Socioeconomic differences in incident depression in older adults: The role of psychosocial factors, physical health status, and behavioral factors. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 61(5), 619–627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2006.05.009
36.
KrausM. W.AdlerN.ChenT. W. D. (2013). Is the association of subjective SES and self-rated health confounded by negative mood? An experimental approach. Health Psychology, 32(2), 138–145. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027343
37.
KubzanskyL. D.SubramanianS. V.KawachiI.FayM. E.SoobaderM.BerkmanL. F. (2005). Neighborhood contextual influences on depressive symptoms in the elderly. American Journal of Epidemiology, 162(3), 253–260. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwi185
38.
KumarA.AnandN. (2008). Background Paper for the Chronic Poverty Report Poverty Target Programs for The Elderly In India With Special Reference to National Old Age Pension Scheme, 1995.
39.
KumarS.NakulanA.ThoppilS. P.ParasseryR. P.KunnukattilS. S. (2016). Screening for depression among community-dwelling elders: Usefulness of the center for epidemiologic studies depression scale. Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 38(5), 483–485. https://doi.org/10.4103/0253-7176.191380
40.
LiY.ChenT.LiQ.JiangL. (2023). The impact of subjective poverty on the mental health of the elderly in China: The mediating role of social capital. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(17), 6672. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20176672
41.
LinJ.ArnovitzM.KotbiN.FrancoisD. (2023). Substance use disorders in the geriatric population: A review and synthesis of the literature of a growing problem in a growing population. In Current treatment options in psychiatry (Vol. 10, pp. 313–332). Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40501-023-00291-9
42.
LorantV.DeliègeD.EatonW.RobertA.PhilippotP.AnsseauM. (2003). Socioeconomic inequalities in depression: A meta-analysis. Socioeconomic Inequalities in Depression: A Meta-Analysis, 157(2), 98–112. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwf182
43.
MarbinD.GutwinskiS.SchreiterS.HeinzA. (2017). Perspectives in poverty and mental health. Frontiers in Public Health, 10(5), 975482.
44.
MeloS.GuedesJ.MendesS. (2019). Theory of cumulative disadvantage/advantage. In Encyclopedia of gerontology and population aging (pp. 1–8). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69892-2_751-1
45.
MurrayL.NguyenH.LeeY.-F.RemmengaM. D.SmithD. W. (2012). Variance inflation factors in regression models with dummy variables. In: Conference on applied statistics in agriculture. https://doi.org/10.4148/2475-7772.1034
46.
MyckM.NajsztubM.OczkowskaM. (2020). Implications of social and material deprivation for changes in health of older people. Journal of Aging And Health, 32(5-6), 371–383. https://doi.org/10.1177/0898264319826417
47.
NolanB.WhelanC. (2010). Using non-monetary deprivation indicators to analyze poverty and social exclusion: Lessons from Europe?Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 29(2), 305–325. https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.20493
48.
OsborneJ. W. (2017). Best practices in logistic regression. In Best practices in logistic regression. Sage Publications, Ltd. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483399041
49.
PearlinL. I.MenaghanE. G.LiebermanM. A.MullanJ. T. (1981). The stress process. In: Source: Journal of health and social behavior (Vol. 22). American Sociological Association.
50.
PengpidS.PeltzerK. (2021). Utilization of complementary and traditional medicine practitioners among middle-aged and older adults in India: Results of a national survey in 2017–2018. BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies, 21(1), 262. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12906-021-03432-w
51.
PilaniaM.YadavV.BairwaM.BeheraP.GuptaS. D.KhuranaH.MohanV.BaniyaG.PoongothaiS. (2019). Prevalence of depression among the elderly (60 years and above) population in India, 1997-2016: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BioMed Central, 19(1), 832. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-019-7136-z
52.
RidleyM.RaoG.SchilbachF.PatelV. (2020). Poverty, depression, and anxiety: Causal evidence and mechanisms. American Association for the Advancement of Science, 370(6522), eaay0214. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aay0214
53.
RongY.YangC. J.JinY.WangY. (2021). Prevalence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in individuals with autism spectrum disorder: A meta-analysis. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 83(2021), Article 101759. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2021.101759
54.
SegrinC.PassalacquaS. A. (2010). Functions of loneliness, social support, health behaviors, and stress in association with poor health. Health Communication, 25(4), 312–322. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410231003773334
55.
SennT. E.WalshJ. L.CareyM. P. (2014). The mediating roles of perceived stress and health behaviors in the relation between objective, subjective, and neighborhood socioeconomic status and perceived health. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 48(2), 215–224. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12160-014-9591-1
56.
Shariff-MarcoS.BreenN.LandrineH.ReeveB. B.KriegerN.GeeG. C.WilliamsD. R.MaysV. M.PonceN. A.AlegríaM.LiuB.WillisG.JohnsonT. P. (2011). Measuring everyday racial/ethnic discrimination in health surveys: How best to ask the questions, in one or two stages, across multiple racial/ethnic groups?Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race, 8(1), 159–177. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742058X11000129
57.
SinghA.MisraN. (2009). Loneliness, depression and sociability in old age. Industrial Psychiatry Journal, 18(1), 51–55. https://doi.org/10.4103/0972-6748.57861
58.
StansfeldS.CandyB. (2006). Psychosocial work environment and mental health–a meta-analytic review. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, 32(6), 443–462. https://doi.org/10.5271/sjweh.1050
TangV. F. Y.ChouK. L. (2024). An exploratory study on material deprivation and loneliness among older adults in Hong Kong. BMC Geriatrics, 24(1), 400. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-024-05013-1
61.
TownsendP. (nd). Poverty in the United Kingdom A survey of household resources and standards of living.
62.
WangX.GuoJ.LiuH.ZhaoT.LiH.WangT. (2022). Impact of social participation types on depression in the elderly in China: An analysis based on counterfactual causal inference. Frontiers in Public Health, 10(2022), Article 792765. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.792765
63.
XuY.YangJ.GaoJ.ZhouZ.ZhangT.RenJ.LiY.QianY.LaiS.ChenG. (2016). Decomposing socioeconomic inequalities in depressive symptoms among the elderly in China. BMC Public Health, 16(1), 1214–1219. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-016-3876-1
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
