Objective: We investigated the relation of hypertension to cognitive performance and its interplay with key markers of cognitive reserve in a large sample of older adults. Method: We assessed tests of immediate and delayed cued recall and working memory in 701 older adults. We measured systolic blood pressure and interviewed individuals on their education, past occupation, and cognitive leisure activity. Results: Hypertension (≥140 mmHg) was related to lower performance in all three cognitive measures. Moderation analyses suggested that these relations were reduced in individuals with greater engaging in cognitive leisure activity. Hierarchical regression analyses showed that hypertension was not related to any of the three investigated cognitive performance measures when education, cognitive level of job, and cognitive leisure activity were simultaneously taken into account. Discussion: The detrimental influences of hypertension on cognitive functioning in old age may be reduced in individuals with greater cognitive reserve accumulated during the life course.
AbasovaL. I.BabaevA. M.ShiralievaR. K. (2009). Prevention and correction of cognitive disorders in arterial hypertension. Kardiologiya, 49(11), 51-55.
2.
AdamS.BonsangE.GrotzC.PerelmanS. (2013). Occupational activity and cognitive reserve: Implications in terms of prevention of cognitive aging and Alzheimer’s disease. Clinical Interventions in Aging, 8, 377-390.
3.
AlipourH.GoldustM. (2016). The association between blood pressure components and cognitive functions and cognitive reserve. Clinical and Experimental Hypertension, 38, 95-99.
4.
AloscoM. L.BrickmanA. M.SpitznagelM. B.van DulmenM.RazN.CohenR.. . . GunstadJ. (2012). The independent association of hypertension with cognitive function among older adults with heart failure. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 323, 216-220.
5.
Arenaza-UrquijoE. M.WirthM.ChetelatG. (2015). Cognitive reserve and lifestyle: Moving towards preclinical Alzheimer’s disease. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 7, 134. doi:10.3389/Fnagi.2015.00134
6.
Associação Brasileira de Empresas de Pesquisa [Brazilian Association of Research Companies]. (2003). Critério de classificação econômica Brasil [Brazilian economic classification criterion]. Available from http://www.abep.org
7.
BielakA. A. M.CherbuinN.BunceD.AnsteyK. J. (2014). Preserved differentiation between physical activity and cognitive performance across young, middle, and older adulthood over 8 years. Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 69, 523-532.
8.
BirnsJ.KalraL. (2009). Cognitive function and hypertension. Journal of Human Hypertension, 23, 86-96.
9.
CarmichaelO. (2014). Preventing vascular effects on brain injury and cognition late in life: Knowns and unknowns. Neuropsychology Review, 24, 371-387.
10.
FritschT.McClendonM. J.SmythK. A.LernerA. J.FriedlandR. P.LarsenJ. D. (2007). Cognitive functioning in healthy aging: The role of reserve and lifestyle factors early in life. The Gerontologist, 47, 307-322.
11.
GaseckiD.KwarcianyM.NykaW.NarkiewiczK. (2013). Hypertension, Brain Damage and Cognitive Decline. Current Hypertension Reports, 15, 547-558.
12.
GatzM.SvedbergP.PedersenN. L.MortimerJ. A.BergS.JohanssonB. (2001). Education and the risk of Alzheimer’s disease: Findings from the study of dementia in Swedish Twins. Journal of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences, 56, 292-300.
13.
GiordanoN.TikhonoffV.PalatiniP.BascelliA.BoschettiG.De LazzariF.. . . CasigliaE. (2012). Cognitive functions and cognitive reserve in relation to blood pressure components in a population-based cohort aged 53 to 94 years. International Journal of Hypertension, 2012, Article 274851. doi:10.1155/2012/274851
14.
GonçalvesC.PinhoM. S.CruzV.GensH.OliveiraF.PaisJ.. . . SantosJ. M. (2016). Portuguese version of Wechsler Memory Scale 3rd edition’s utility with demented elderly adults. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 18, 1-14.
HertzogC.KramerA. F.WilsonR. S.LindenbergerU. (2008). Enrichment effects on adult cognitive development: Can the functional capacity of older adults be preserved and enhanced?Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 9, 1-65.
17.
HughesT. M.SinkK. M. (2016). Hypertension and its role in cognitive function: Current evidence and challenges for the future. American Journal of Hypertension, 29, 149-157.
18.
HultschD. F.HertzogC.SmallB. J.DixonR. A. (1999). Use it or lose it: Engaged lifestyle as a buffer of cognitive decline in aging?Psychology and Aging, 14, 245-263.
19.
IadecolaC.YaffeK.BillerJ.BratzkeL. C.FaraciF. M.GorelickP. B.. . . Al HazzouriA. Z. (2016). Impact of hypertension on cognitive function: A scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Hypertension, 68(6), 67-94.
20.
IhleA.GrotzC.AdamS.OrisM.FagotD.GabrielR.KliegelM. (2016). The association of timing of retirement with cognitive performance in old age: The role of leisure activities after retirement. International Psychogeriatrics, 28, 1659-1669.
21.
IhleA.MonsU.PernaL.OrisM.FagotD.GabrielR.KliegelM. (2016). The relation of obesity to performance in verbal abilities, processing speed, and cognitive flexibility in old age: The role of cognitive reserve. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 42, 117-126.
22.
IhleA.OrisM.FagotD.BaeriswylM.GuichardE.KliegelM. (2015). The association of leisure activities in middle adulthood with cognitive performance in old age: The moderating role of educational level. Gerontology, 61, 543-550.
23.
IhleA.OrisM.FagotD.ChicherioC.van der LindenB. W. A.SauterJ.KliegelM. (2017). Associations of educational attainment and cognitive level of job with old age verbal ability and processing speed: The mediating role of chronic diseases. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult. Advance online publication. doi:10.1080/23279095.2017.1306525
24.
IkangaJ. (2015). Cognitive reserve as neuroprotection for cognitive functions in individuals with clinical hypertension (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Detroit Mercy, MI. Retrieved from http://archives.udmercy.edu:8080/handle/10429/801
25.
KarpA.Paillard-BorgS.WangH. X.SilversteinM.WinbladB.FratiglioniL. (2006). Mental, physical and social components in leisure activities equally contribute to decrease dementia risk. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 21, 65-73.
26.
Kesse-GuyotE.AndreevaV. A.LassaleC.FerryM.JeandelC.HercbergS.. . . SU.VI.MAX 2 Research Group. (2013). Mediterranean diet and cognitive function: A French study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 97, 369-376.
27.
KilgourA. H. M.StarrJ. M.WhalleyL. J. (2010). Associations between childhood intelligence (IQ), adult morbidity and mortality. Maturitas, 65, 98-105.
28.
KliegelM.ZimprichD.RottC. (2004). Life-long intellectual activities mediate the predictive effect of early education on cognitive impairment in centenarians: A retrospective study. Aging & Mental Health, 8, 430-437.
29.
McDowellI.XiG. L.LindsayJ.TierneyM. (2007). Mapping the connections between education and dementia. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 29, 127-141.
30.
MurphyM.O’LearyE. (2010). Depression, cognitive reserve and memory performance in older adults. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 25, 665-671.
31.
NaranjoI. C.MorenoJ. M. R. (2008). Hypertension and cognitive function. Medicina Clinica, 130, 542-552.
32.
NucciM.MapelliD.MondiniS. (2012). Cognitive Reserve Index questionnaire (CRIq): A new instrument for measuring cognitive reserve. Aging Clinical and Experimental Research, 24, 218-226.
33.
OpdebeeckC.MartyrA.ClareL. (2016). Cognitive reserve and cognitive function in healthy older people: A meta-analysis. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 23, 40-60.
34.
PaglieriC.BisbocciD.CasertaM.RabbiaF.BertelloC.CanadeA.VeglioF. (2008). Hypertension and cognitive function. Clinical and Experimental Hypertension, 30, 701-710.
35.
PreacherK. J.CurranP. J.BauerD. J. (2006). Computational tools for probing interactions in multiple linear regression, multilevel modeling, and latent curve analysis. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 31, 437-448.
36.
R Core Team. (2014). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing.
37.
ReijmerY. D.van den BergE.DekkerJ. M.NijpelsG.StehouwerC. D. A.KappelleL. J.BiesselsG. J. (2012). Development of vascular risk factors over 15 years in relation to cognition: The Hoorn study. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 60, 1426-1433.
38.
RobertsonI. H. (2013). A noradrenergic theory of cognitive reserve: Implications for Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiology of Aging, 34, 298-308.
39.
SternY. (2002). What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 8, 448-460.
WechslerD. (2008a). Escala de Memória de Wechsler, 3a edição: Manual técnico [Wechsler Memory Scale, 3rd ed.]. Lisboa, Portugal: Cegoc.
46.
WechslerD. (2008b). Escala de Inteligência de Wechsler para Adultos, 3a edição [Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, 3rd ed.]. Lisboa, Portugal: Cegoc.
47.
World Health Organization. (2003). 2003 World Health Organization (WHO)/International Society of Hypertension (ISH) statement on management of hypertension. Journal of Hypertension, 21, 1983-1992.
48.
WilsonR. S.BoyleP. A.YuL.BarnesL. L.SchneiderJ. A.BennettD. A. (2013). Life-span cognitive activity, neuropathologic burden, and cognitive aging. Neurology, 81, 314-321.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
