“The Whole Damn System Is Guilty”: Urban Violence,the Principal Contradiction of Racial Capitalism,and the Production of Premature Death in Oakland,California

Abstract

Discourses of “urban violence” are deployed in reaction to the mobilizations advanced by working-class communities of color following extrajudicial police murders. This discourse delegitimates these mobilizations while pathologizing said communities by insisting that “urban violence,” not police murders, is a more pertinent issue. This article takes seriously the claims made during the Oscar Grant “moment”— a period of popular struggle — that “the whole damn system is guilty.” This article uses Gramscian conceptualizations of socio-historical activity, organic and conjunctural, along with public health and socio-economic measures, to counter the obfuscating discourse of “urban violence” by illustrating the structural violence that communities in Oakland endure and contest. The sum of this structural violence constitutes the principle contradiction of racial capitalism, which produces premature death for working-class communities of color in Oakland. The extrajudicial police murder of Grant in Oakland catalyzed the blossoming open of this contradiction into an intensified moment of struggle.

Keywords

racial capitalism political economy premature death

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

ACORN (2007) Foreclosure Exposure: A Study of Racial and Income Disparities in Home Mortgage Lending in 172 American Cities. Washington, DC: ACORN Fair Housing.

Alameda County Community Food Bank (2010) Hunger: The Faces & The Facts 2010. Oakland: Alameda County Community Food Bank. Available at: http://www.accfb.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/2010HungerStudy_Final.pdf [Accessed 26 March 2020].

Allen-Taylor

(2003) Showing their side. East Bay Express 12 March. Available at: https://www.eastbayexpress.com/oakland/showing-their-side/Content?oid=1069567&storyPage=7 [Accessed 26 March 2020].

Almaguer

(1994) Racial Fault Lines: The Historical Origins of White Supremacy in California. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

American Public Health Association (2018) Addressing law enforcement violence as a public health issue. Policy Statement 201811. San Diego, CA. Available at: https://www.apha.org/policies-and-advocacy/public-health-policy-statements/policy-database/2019/01/29/law-enforcement-violence [Accessed 26 March 2020].

Arnold

(2011) Oakland gang injunctions: gentrification or public safety? Race, Poverty & the Environment 18(2): 70–74. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41554793 [Accessed 12 October 2013].

Artz

(2012) Oakland to pay $4.6 million in strip search cases. Oakland Tribune 14 November. Available at: http://www.mercurynews.com/california/ci_21998038/oakland-pay-4-6-million-strip-search-cases [Accessed 3 June 2014].

Bacon

(2013) The Right to Stay Home: How US Policy Drives Mexican Migration. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.

Baker

(2020) Killing “Hajis” in “Indian Country”: Neoliberal Crisis, the Iraq War and the Affective Wages of Anti-Muslim Racism. Arab Studies Quarterly 42(1–2): 46–65. DOI: 10.13169/arabstudquar.42.1-2.0046.

10.

Balko

(2012) Why are there no good data on police use of force? Huffington Post 11 December. Available at: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/radley-balko/why-is-there-no-good-data_b_2278013.html [Accessed 1 June 2014].

11.

BART (2010a) BART chronology. Available at: http://www.bart.gov/docs/BARThistory.pdf [Accessed 26 March 2020].

12.

BART (2010b) BPD: yesterday, today, tomorrow. Available at: http://www.bart.gov/about/police/history.aspx [Accessed 26 March 2020].

13.

BART Management Audit - Executive Summary (2009) Alexandria: NOBLE. Available at: http://www.bart.gov/docs/NOBLE_Audit_Draft_Exec.pdf [Accessed 26 March 2020].

14.

Beatty

Petteruti

Ziedenberg

(2007) The Vortex: The Concentrated Racial Impact of Drug Imprisonment and the Charcateristics of Punitive Counties. Washington, DC: Justice Policy Institute. Available at: http://www.justicepolicy.org/images/upload/07-12_REP_Vortex_AC-DP.pdf [Accessed 26 March 2020].

15.

Beyers

Brown

(2008) Life and Death from Unnatural Causes: Health and Social Inequality in Alameda County. Oakland, CA: CAPE unit of the Alameda County Public Health Department.

16.

Bond-Graham

(2016) Oakland firefighters say their department is so badly managed, Ghost Ship Warehouse wasn’t even in its inspection database. East Bay Express 7 December. Available at: https://www.eastbayexpress.com/oakland/oakland-firefighters-say-their-department-is-so-badly-managed-ghost-ship-warehouse-wasnt-even-in-its-inspection-database/Content?oid=5055245 [Accessed 17 March 2020].

17.

Bond-Graham

(2018) The East Bay’s changing demographics. East Bay Express 14 February. Available at: https://www.eastbayexpress.com/oakland/the-east-bays-changing-demographics/Content?oid=13262928 [Accessed 17 March 2020].

18.

Bulwa

(2009a) BART urges patience over video of shooting. San Francisco Chronicle 5 January. Available at: https://infoweb.newsbank.com/apps/news/document-view?p=AMNEWS&docref=news/1258726ED9CC5308 [Accessed 21 March 2020].

19.

Bulwa

(2009b) Ex-cop’s defense: He meant to “tase” victim. San Francisco Chronicle 31 January. Available at: https://infoweb.newsbank.com/apps/news/document-view?p=AMNEWS&docref=news/1261038D18C9E2E0 [Accessed 21 March 2020].

20.

Bulwa

(2010a) BART fires cop who helped detain Oscar Grant. Available at: internal-pdf://BART fires cop who helped detain Oscar Grant-SFGate-0155462656/BART fires cop who helped detain Oscar Grant - SFGate.pdf [Accessed 26 March 2020].

21.

Bulwa

(2010b) Mehserle blurted term of shock, witness says. San Francisco Chronicle 15 June. Available at: http://www.sfgate.com/crime/article/Mehserle-blurted-term-of-shock-witness-says-3184707.php#src=fb [Accessed 24 September 2013].

22.

Bulwa

Swan

(2018) 10 years since Oscar Grant’s death: what happened at Fruitvale Station? San Francisco Chronicle 28 December. San Francisco, CA. Available at: https://www.sfchronicle.com/bayarea/article/10-years-since-Oscar-Grant-s-death-What-13489585.php [Accessed 7 June 2019].

23.

Carson

(2005) Oakland landlords attack eviction protections: tenant activists fight a lawsuit aimed at killing Oakland’s Just Cause measure. Street Spirit: Justice News & Homeless Blues November. Available at: http://www.thestreetspirit.org/Nov2005/evictions.htm [Accessed 23 June 2014].

24.

Causa Justa::Just Cause (2013) Housing, Health, & Habitability in Oakland - 2013. Oakland, CA: Causa Justa::Just Cause. Available at: http://www.cjjc.org/news/51-housing-justice/532-health-habitability-report-2013 [Accessed 23 February 2014].

25.

Chimurenga

(2014) No Doubt: The Murder(s) of Oscar Grant. Scotts Valley, CA: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.

26.

Chimurenga

Cook

“Davey D” (2012) Editorial: to those who keep asking; “Why ya’ll don’t care when Black folks kill Black folks.” Hip-Hop and Politics 23 March. Available at: http://hiphopandpolitics.com/2012/03/23/editorial-to-those-who-keep-asking-why-yall-dont-care-when-black-folks-kill-black-folks/ (Accessed 13 March 2020].

27.

Communities for a Better Environment, Urban Habitat and Public Advocates, Inc. (2006) MTC, Where Are Our Buses?: Challenging the Bay Area’s Separate and Unequal Transit System. Available at: http://www.publicadvocates.org/sites/default/files/library/mtc-where_are_our_buses4.pdf (Accessed 26 March 2020].

28.

Cook

"Davey

(2010) Where are all the Oscar Grant protests when we’re shooting each other in the hood? Davey D’s Hip Hop Corner 6 November. Available at: https://hiphopandpolitics.wordpress.com/2010/11/06/where-are-all-the-oscar-grant-protests-when-were-shooting-each-other-in-the-hood/ [Accessed 13 March 2020].

29.

Coup

(1994) Fat Cats, Bigga Fish. Genocide & Juice. Los Angeles, CA: Pendulum Records.

30.

East Bay Alliance for a Sustainable Economy (2012) The State of Work in the East Bay and Oakland. May. Oakland, CA: East Bay Alliance for a Sustainable Economy. Available at: http://www.workingeastbay.org/sowebo [Accessed 11 February 2014].

31.

East Bay Alliance for a Sustainable Economy (n.d.) Taking the Low Road: How Independent Contracting at the Port of Oakland Endangers Public Health, Truck Drivers, & Economic Growth. Oakland: East Bay Alliance for a Sustainable Economy. Available at: http://www.workingeastbay.org/section.php?id=54 [Accessed 13 February 2014].

32.

Eisen

(2013) Operation Ghetto Storm: 2012 Annual Report on the Extrajudicial Killing of 313 Black People. Malcolm X Grassroots Movement. Available at: http://www.africaknowledgeproject.org/index.php/proudflesh/article/view/1758 [Accessed 1 June 2014].

33.

Environment C for a B (2008) Cumulative Impacts in East Oakland: Findings from a Community-Based Mapping Study: A Report. Huntington Park, CA: Communities for a Better Environment.

34.

Escobar

(1999) Race, Police, and the Making of a Political Identity: Mexican Americans and the Los Angeles Police Department, 1900-1945. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

35.

Esteva

(2010) From the bottom-up: new institutional arrangements in Latin America. Development 53(1): 64–69. DOI: 10.1057/dev.2009.80.

36.

Fagan

Lee

DeFao

(2000) Oakland reins in its rough “Riders.” San Francisco Chronicle 2 October. Available at: http://www.sfgate.com/default/article/Oakland-Reins-In-Its-Rough-Riders-In-a-tough-3237415.php#page-1 [Accessed 22 February 2013].

37.

Federici

(2004) Caliban and the Witch: Women, the Body and Primitive Accumulation. New York, NY: Autonomedia.

38.

FY 2007–2009 Adopted Policy Budget (2009) April. Oakland, CA: City of Oakland.

39.

Gilmore

(2007) Golden Gulag: Prisons, Surplus, Crisis, and Opposition in Globalizing California. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

40.

Globe Staff (2014) Report released in killing of Ibragim Todashev by FBI agent. The Boston Globe 25 March. Available at: https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2014/03/25/todashev/rt3K7PSMY1ykZiU0DaaiuI/story.html [Accessed 2 June 2014].

41.

Gramsci

(1989) Selections from the Prison Notebooks. Reprint ed. New York, NY: International Publishers Co.

42.

Gray-Garcia

(2009) No more stolen lives! IndyBay 26 February. Available at: http://www.indybay.org/newsitems/2009/02/26/18573563.php [Accessed 26 March 2020].

43.

Grosfoguel

(2016) What is racism? Journal of World-Systems Research 22(1): 9–15. DOI: 10.5195/jwsr.2016.609.

44.

Gutierrez

(2006) BART conducts counterterror training. The Daily Californian 7 March. Berkeley, CA. Available at: http://archive.dailycal.org/article.php?id=23333 [Accessed 23 June 2014].

45.

Haley

Zimmerman

Woolf

, et al. (2012) Neighborhood-Level Determinants of Life Expectancy in Oakland, CA. Virginia Commonwealth University: Center on Human Needs. Available at: http://www.societyhealth.vcu.edu/Page.aspx?nav=204 [Accessed 25 February 2014].

46.

Hall

(1986) Gramsci’s relevance for the study of race and ethnicity. Journal of Communication Inquiry 10(2): 5–27. DOI: 10.1177/019685998601000202.

47.

Hall

(1996) Race, articulation, and societies structured in dominance. In Baker

Diawara

Lindeborg

(eds) Black British Cultural Studies: A Reader. Chicago, IL: Univeristy of Chicago Press, 16–60.

48.

Hall

Massey

(2010) Interpreting the crisis. Soundings (44): 57–71. DOI: info:doi/10.3898/136266210791036791

49.

Hall

Critcher

Jefferson

, et al. (1978) Policing the Crisis: Mugging, the State, and Law and Order. New York, NY: Holmes & Meier.

50.

Harvey

(1978) The Urban Process Under Capitalism: A Framework for Analysis. Oxford: Blackwell.

51.

Heredia

(2006) Mayor, chief act on “crisis” of slayings, slow responses: 115 officers to be redeployed to new crime-suppression unit. San Francisco Chronicle 2 March. Available at: http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/03/02/MORECOPS.TMP [Accessed 26 March 2020].

52.

Heredia

(2008) Oakland police force at record 837 officers. San Francisco Chronicle 15 November. Available at: http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2008/11/15/BAC1144RB9.DTL&type=printable [Accessed 26 March 2020].

53.

Holloway

(1998) Dignity’s revolt.In: Holloway

Pelaez

(eds) Zapatista! Reinventing Revolution in Mexico. London: Pluto Press, 159–198.

54.

HOPE Collaborative (2009) A Place with No Sidewalks: An Assessment of Food Access, The Built Environment and Local, Sustainable Economic Development in Ecological Micro-Zones in the City of Oakland, California in 2008. Oakland, CA: HOPE Collaborative.

55.

(2009a) Notes from the Citizens’ Police Review Board Meeting, Oakland, 5 February 2009. Indybay 6 February. Available at: http://www.indybay.org/newsitems/2009/02/06/18568540.php [Accessed 26 March 2020].

56.

(2009b) Oscar Grant Rally, Oakland, 1/7/09 - Photos. IndyBay 8 January. Available at: http://www.indybay.org/newsitems/2009/01/08/18560023.php [Accessed 26 March 2020].

57.

(2009c) Rally and rage over BART police murder of Oscar grant. IndyBay 8 January. Available at: http://www.indybay.org/newsitems/2009/01/08/18559668.php [Accessed 26 March 2020].

58.

IndyBay (2009) NOBLE present disturbing report on BART police department. 2 October. Oakland. Available at: http://www.indybay.org/newsitems/2009/10/02/18624186.php [Accessed 26 March 2020].

59.

Kagan

(2011) Measure Y Violence Prevention Needs Assessment. Oakland: Department of Human Services, Policy and Planning, Measure Y. Available at: http://oaklandunite.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/RFP-Needs-Assessment-DRAFT-v-1.pdf [Accessed 26 March 2020].

60.

Kauanui

(2017) Tracing historical specificity: race and the colonial politics of (in)capacity. American Quarterly 69(2): 257–265. DOI: 10.1353/aq.2017.0019.

61.

Kelley

RDG

(2000) Foreword.In: Robinson

(ed.), Black Marxism: The Making of the Black Radical Tradition. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, xi–xxvi.

62.

Kelley

RDG

(2017) What did Cedric Robinson mean by racial capitalism? Boston Review 12 January. Available at: http://bostonreview.net/race/robin-d-g-kelley-what-did-cedric-robinson-mean-racial-capitalism [Accessed 31 August 2018].

63.

Lee

(2005) Unwarranted search by police alleged. San Francisco Chronicle 9 August. Available at: http://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/OAKLAND-Unwarranted-search-by-police-alleged-2617855.php#src=fb [Accessed 3 June 2014].

64.

Lee

(2007a) Federal lawsuit against Oakland over public strip searches. San Francisco Chronicle 21 August. Available at: http://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/Federal-lawsuit-against-Oakland-over-public-strip-2545724.php#src=fb [Accessed 3 June 2014].

65.

Lee

(2007b) Suit alleges police did strip searches in public. San Francisco Chronicle 30 March. Available at: http://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/OAKLAND-Suit-alleges-police-did-strip-searches-2605813.php#src=fb [Accessed 3 June 2014].

66.

Lee

(2008a) Oakland likely to be sued over killing by cop. San Francisco Chronicle 28 July. Available at: http://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/Oakland-likely-to-be-sued-over-killing-by-cop-3202231.php#src=fb [Accessed 2 June 2014].

67.

Lee

(2008b) Oakland strip-search law ruled unconstitutional. San Francisco Chronicle 29 March. Available at: http://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/Oakland-strip-search-law-ruled-unconstitutional-3289905.php#src=fb [Accessed 3 June 2014].

68.

Lee

(2009) Oakland cop fired after second killing. San Francisco Chronicle 21 June. Available at: http://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/Oakland-cop-fired-after-second-killing-3228212.php#src=fb [Accessed 2 June 2014].

69.

Lee

(2011a) Men stripped by Oakland cops in public win lawsuit. San Francisco Chronicle 5 August. Available at: http://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/Men-stripped-by-Oakland-cops-in-public-win-lawsuit-2336469.php#src=fb [Accessed 3 June 2014].

70.

Lee

(2011b) Oakland must rehire cop who shot suspect in back. San Francisco Chronicle 5 March. Available at: http://www.sfgate.com/crime/article/Oakland-must-rehire-cop-who-shot-suspect-in-back-2528215.php#src=fb [Accessed 2 June 2014].

71.

Lee

(2011c) Oakland school district names interim police chief. San Francisco Chronicle 3 September. Available at: http://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/Oakland-school-district-names-interim-police-chief-2311098.php#src=fb [Accessed 2 June 2014].

72.

Lee

(2011d) Public strip search costs ex-Oakland cop $40K. San Francisco Chronicle 8 November. Available at: http://www.sfgate.com/crime/article/Public-strip-search-costs-ex-Oakland-cop-40K-2323692.php#src=fb [Accessed 3 June 2014].

73.

Lefebvre

(1991) The Production of Space. Oxford: Blackwell.

74.

Lindorff

(2014) New questions in FBI Boston bombing witness killing. Counterpunch 15 May. Available at: http://www.counterpunch.org/2014/05/15/new-questions-in-fbi-boston-bombing-witness-killing/ [Accessed 2 June 2014].

75.

Lipsitz

(2006a) Learning from New Orleans: the social warrant of hostile privatism and competitive consumer citizenship. Cultural Anthropology 21(3): 451–468. DOI: 10.1525/can.2006.21.3.451.

76.

Lipsitz

(2006b) The Possessive Investment in Whiteness: How White People Profit from Identity Politics. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.

77.

Lipsitz

(2011) How Racism Takes Place. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.

78.

Lipsitz

Rodriguez

(2012) Turning hegemony on its head: the insurgent knowledge of Americo Paredes. The Journal of American Folklore 125(495): 111–125. DOI: 10.5406/jamerfolk.125.495.0111.

79.

Lobo

(1990) Oakland’s American Indian Community: History, Social Organization and Factors That Contribute to Census Undercount. Washington, DC: Bureau of the Census. Available at: http://www.census.gov/srd/papers/pdf/ex90-12.pdf [Accessed 26 March 2020].

80.

(2014) Hometown Chinatown: A History of Oakland’s Chinese Community, 1852–1995. New York, NY: Routledge.

81.

Mac Donald

(1999) Jerry Brown’s no-nonsense new age for Oakland. City Journal, Autumn. Available at: http://www.city-journal.org/html/9_4_a2.html [Accessed 23 June 2014].

82.

Mac Donald

(2007) Oakland faces lawsuit over police strip-searches. Oakland Tribune 30 March. Available at: http://www.insidebayarea.com/ci_5555905 [Accessed 3 June 2014].

83.

Mac Donald

(2016) The War on Cops : How the New Attack on Law and Order Makes Everyone Less Safe. New York, NY: Encounter Books.

84.

Maldari

Allison

(2009) The protest over the BART police shooting. The Morning Show 8 January. Available at: http://www.kpfa.org/archive/id/47362 [Accessed 5 October 2013].

85.

Manyak

(2010) Prosecution rests in Mehserle trial; BART train operator downplays severity of fight. The California Beat 21 June. Available at: http://www.californiabeat.org/2010/06/21/prosecution-rests-in-mehserle-trial-bart-train-operator-downplays-severity-of-fight [Accessed 21 September 2013].

86.

Mao

(1952) Mao Tse-Tung on Contradiction. Peking: Foreign Languages Press.

87.

Mao

(1966) On the Correct Handling of Contradictions among the People. Peking: Foreign Languages Press.

88.

Marx

(1992) Capital Vol 1. New York, NY: Penguin Books Limited.

89.

McClintock

(2008) From industrial garden to food desert: unearthing the root structure of urban agriculture in Oakland, California. Available at: http://escholarship.org/uc/item/1wh3v1sj.pdf [Accessed 25 February 2014].

90.

National Low Income Housing Coalition (n.d.) Out of Reach 2013. Available at: http://nlihc.org/oor/2013 [Accessed 25 February 2014].

91.

Nguyen

L-H

Marshall

(2003) Chronology of California School District Takeovers. Oakland: Youth Strategy Project - Data Center. Available at: internal-pdf://oaklandtakeover-1040922113/oaklandtakeover.pdf [Accessed 26 March 2020].

92.

O’Connor

(2008) The privatized city: the Manhattan Institute, the urban crisis, and the conservative counterrevolution in New York. Journal of Urban History 34(2): 333–353. DOI: 10.1177/0096144207308672.

93.

Oakland Fund for Children and Youth (2012) Oakland Youth Indicator Report. Oakland: Oakland Fund for Children and Youth. Available at: http://www.ofcy.org/reports/ [Accessed 26 February 2014].

94.

Peele

(2013) Oakland police: too quick to fire? Oakland Tribune 2 May. Available at: http://www.insidebayarea.com/breaking-news/ci_23151173/oakland-police-too-quick-fire [Accessed 21 May 2014].

95.

Olmos

(2019) Racialized im/migration and autonomy of migration perspectives: New directions and opportunities. Sociology Compass 13(9). DOI: 10.1111/soc4.12729.

96.

Osuna

(2020) Transnational moral panic: neoliberalism and the spectre of MS-13. Race & Class 61(4): 3–28. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0306396820904304.

97.

Peraino

(2008) East Bay Immigrant Workers. Oakland, CA: East Bay Alliance for a Sustainable Economy.

98.

Phillips

Clark

Lee

, et al. (2014) Rebuilding Neighborhoods, Restoring Health: A Report on the Impact of Foreclosures on Public Health. Oakland: Causa Justa::Just Cause. Available at: http://www.cjjc.org/publications/reports?lang=en [Accessed 23 February 2014].

99.

Prashad

(2005) Second-hand dreams. Social Analysis 49(2): 191–198. DOI: 10.3167/015597705780886194.

100.

Prashad

(2018) In the ruins of the present: Tricontinental Working Document, no. 1. New York: Tricontinental Institute for Social Research. Available at: https://www.thetricontinental.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/InTheRuinsOfThePresent.pdf [Accessed 15 March 2019].

101.

Public Report: Review of Policies, Practices and Procedures, RE: New Year’s Day 2009 (2009) 11 August. Oakland: Meyers Nave: Professional Law Corporation. Available at: http://www.bart.gov/docs/Meyers_Nave_Public_Report.pdf [Accessed 26 March 2020].

102.

Redmonde

(2009) Oakland report: hearing for killer Cop Mehserle! Justice for Oscar Grant! IndyBay 29 May. Available at: http://www.indybay.org/newsitems/2009/05/29/18599231.php?show_comments=1 [Accessed 24 September 2013].

103.

Robinson

(2000) Black Marxism: The Making of the Black Radical Tradition. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.

104.

Robinson

(2001) The inventions of the Negro. Social Identities 7(3): 329–361. DOI: 10.1080/13504630120087208.

105.

Robinson

(2007) Forgeries of Memory and Meaning: Blacks and the Regimes of Race in American Theater and Film before World War II. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.

106.

Sacchetti

Tran

(2014) Ibragim Todashev shooter had stormy record as officer. The Boston Globe 14 May. Available at: https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2014/05/13/fbi-shooter-had-stormy-record-officer/7zJ1ha78Z0SpfDey0PBuJJ/story.html [Accessed 22 May 2014].

107.

Shapiro

(2004) The Hidden Cost of Being African American: How Wealth Perpetuates Inequality. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

108.

Smith

(1996) The New Urban Frontier: Gentrification and the Revanchist City. New York, NY: Psychology Press.

109.

Tepperman

(2013) Who’s jacking up housing prices in West Oakland? East Bay Express 2 October. Available at: http://www.eastbayexpress.com/oakland/whos-jacking-up-housing-prices-in-west-oakland/Content?oid=3726518 [Accessed 27 February 2014].

110.

Thanawala

(2009) Man fatally shot by Oakland police at BART station. San Mateo Daily Journal 2 January. Available at: https://infoweb.newsbank.com/apps/news/document-view?p=AMNEWS&docref=news/12599ED15DFA6870 [Accessed 21 March 2020].

111.

Tina

(2009) Oakland on fire: anarchists, solidarity, and new possibilities in the Oakland Rebellion. Counterpunch 12 January. Available at: http://www.counterpunch.org/2009/01/12/oakland-on-fire/ [Accessed 7 June 2014].

112.

Tucker

Zito

Knight

(2009) Deadly BART brawl - officer shoots rider, 22. San Francisco Chronicle 2 January. Available at: http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2009/01/02/MNB9152I2Q.DTL [Accessed 26 March 2020].

113.

United States and Federal Bureau of Investigation (2004) Uniform Crime Reporting Handbook. Washington, DC: The Bureau.

114.

U.S. Census Bureau (2010) American FactFinder Sheet. Oakland, CA. Available at: http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/06/0653000.html [Accessed 19 February 2014].

115.

Winston

(2011) Deadly secrets: how California law shields Oakland police violence. Colorlines 17 August. Oakland, CA. Available at: http://colorlines.com/archives/2011/08/deadly_secrets_how_california_law_has_shielded_oakland_police_violence.html [Accessed 21 May 2014].

116.

Woodall

(2011) Judge orders damages in Oakland police strip search. Oakland Tribune 4 August. Available at: http://www.mercurynews.com/news/ci_18619912 [Accessed 3 June 2014].

117.

Woods

(1998) Development Arrested : The Blues and Plantation Power in the Mississippi Delta. New York, NY: Verso.

118.

Woods

(2007) Sittin’ on top of the world: the challenges of blues and hip hop geography.In: McKittrick

Woods

(eds) Black Geographies and the Politics of Place. Boston, MA: South End Press, 46–81.

119.

Woods

(2009) Les Misérables of New Orleans: trap economics and the asset stripping blues, part 1. American Quarterly 61(3): 769–796.

120.

X M (1965) Malcolm X Speaks: Selected Speeches and Statements. New York, NY: Grove Press.

121.

Zamora

(2006) Oakland slayings shadow Brown’s legacy. San Francisco Chronicle 23 October. Available at: http://www.sfgate.com/crime/article/Oakland-slayings-shadow-Brown-s-legacy-2467792.php#src=fb [Accessed 23 June 2014].