Dental biofilms could have a structure which, in sections, looks like tissue. The internal structure of the dental biofilm could be the result of interbacterial adhesion mechanisms in combination with nutritional conditions characterized by multiple nutrient starvation. The preservation of the structure of the biofilm over time may also involve the ability of the bacteria to withstand environmental stresses such as starvation, reactive oxygen products, and acid. The present review will describe, first, the regulation of the metabolic defense against environmental stresses and then focus mainly on the energy metabolism of dental biofilms.
Arnold KW, Kaspar CW (1995). Starvation- and stationary-phase-induced acid tolerance in Escherichia coli 0157:H7. Appl Environ Microbiol61:2037-2039.
2.
Aviv M., Giladi H., Schreiber G., Oppenheim AB, Glaser G. (1994). Expression of the genes coding for the Escherichia coli integration host factor are controlled by growth phase, rpoS, ppGpp and by autoregulation. Mol Microbiol14:1021-1031.
3.
Bakken V., Hogh BT, Jensen HB (1989). Utilization of amino acids and peptides by Fusobacterium nucleatum. Scand J Dent Res97:43-53.
4.
Beatrix B., Bendrat K., Rospert S., Buckel W. (1990). The biotin-dependent sodium ion pump glutaconyl-CoA decarboxylase from Fusobacterium nucleatum (subsp. nucleatum). Arch Microbiol154:362-369.
5.
Belay N., Johnson R., Rajagopal BS, de Macario EC, Daniels L. (1988). Methanogenic bacteria from human dental plaque . Appl Environ Microbiol54:600-603.
6.
Belli WA, Marquis RE (1991). Adaptation of Streptococcus mutans and Enterococcus hirae to acid stress in continuous culture. Appl Environ Microbiol57 :1134-1138.
7.
Bender GR, Sutton Svw, Marquis RE (1986). Acid tolerance, proton permeabilities, and membrane ATPases of oral streptococci. Infect Immun53:331-338.
Bowden Ghw, Hamilton IR (1989). Competition between Streptococcus mutans and Lactobacillus casei in mixed continuous culture. Oral Microbiol Immunol4:57-64.
10.
Brusa T., Conca R., Ferrara A., Pecchioni A. (1987). The presence of methanobacteria in human subgingival plaque. J Clin Periodontol14:470-471.
11.
Buckel W. (1986). Biotin-dependent decarboxylases as bacterial sodium pumps: purification and reconstitution of glutaconyl-CoA decarboxylase from Acidaminococcus fermentans. Meth Enzymol125:547-558.
12.
Calvo JM, Matthews RG (1994). The leucine-responsive regulatory protein, a global regulator of metabolism in Escherichia coli. Microbiol Rev58:466-490.
13.
Carlsson J. (1983). Regulation of sugar metabolism in relation to feast-and-famine existence of plaque. In: Cariology today. Guggenheim B, editor. Basel: Karger, pp. 205-211.
14.
Carlsson J. (1987). Salivary peroxidase: an important part of our defense against oxygen toxicity. J Oral Pathol16 :412-416.
15.
Cassels R., Oliva B., Knowles D. (1995). Occurrence of regulatory nucleotides ppGpp and pppGpp following induction of stringent response in staphylococci. J Bacteriol177:5161-5165.
16.
Condon C., Squires C., Squires CL (1995). Control of rRNA transcription in Escherichia coli . Microbiol Rev59 :623-645.
17.
Cox MM (1991). The RecA protein as a recombinational repair system . Mol Microbiol5:1295-1299.
18.
Curran TM, Lieou J., Marquis RE (1995). Arginine deiminase system and acid adaptation of oral streptococci. Appl Environ Microbiol61:4494-4496.
19.
de Koning-Ward TF, Robins-Browne RM (1995). Contribution of urease to acid tolerance in Yersinia enterocolitica. Infect Immun63:3790-3795.
20.
Deutscher J., Küster E., Bergstedt U., Charrier V., Hillen W. (1995). Protein kinase-dependent HPr/CcpA interaction links glycolytic activity to carbon catabolite repression in Gram-positive bacteria. Mol Microbiol15:1049-1053.
21.
Dimroth P. (1994). Bacterial sodium ion-coupled energetics. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek65:381-395.
22.
Farr SB, Kogoma T. (1991). Oxidation stress responses in Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium. Microbiol Rev55:561-585.
23.
Ferry JG (1995). CO dehydrogenase. Ann Rev Microbiol49:305-333.
24.
Foucaud C., Kunji ER, Hagting A., Richard J., Konings WN, Desmazeaud M., et al. (1995). Specificity of peptide transport systems in Lactococcus lactis: evidence for a third system which transports hydrophobic di- and tripeptides. J Bacteriol177:4652-4657.
25.
Frandsen Evg (1994). Carbohydrate depletion of immunglobulin Al by oral species of Gram-positive rods. Oral Microbiol Immunol9:352-358.
26.
Gharbia SE, Shah HN ( 1988). Glucose utilization and growth response to protein hydrolysates by Fusobacterium species. Curr Microbiol17:229-234.
27.
Gottschalk G.Peinemann S. (1992). The anaerobic way of life. In: The prokaryotes. A handbook on the biology of bacteria: ecophysiology, isolation, identification, applications. Vol. 12nd ed. Balows A, Trüper HG, Dworkin M, Harder W, Scheifer K-H, editors. New York: Springer-Verlag, pp. 300-311.
28.
Hamilton IR (1990). Maintenance of proton motive force by Streptococcus mutans and Streptococcus sobrinus during growth in continuous culture. Oral Microbiol Immunol5:280-287.
29.
Hamilton IR (1991). Adaptation by Streptococcus mutans to acid tolerance . Oral Microbiol Immunol6:65-71.
30.
Hansen TA (1994). Metabolism of sulfate-reducing prokaryotes. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek66:165-185.
31.
Hellingwerf KJ, Postma PW, Tommassen J., Westerhoff HV (1995). Signal transduction in bacteria: phospho-neural network(s) in Escherichia coli? FEMS Microbiol Rev16:309-321.
32.
Hueck CJ, Hillen W. (1995). Catabolite repression in Bacillus subtilis: a global regulatory mechanism for the Gram-positive bacteria? Mol Microbiol15:395-401.
33.
Iwami Y., Abbe K., Takahashi-Abbe S., Yamada T. (1992). Acid production by streptococci growing at low pH in a chemostat under anaerobic conditions. Oral Microbiol Immunol7:304-308.
34.
Iwami Y., Hata S., Schachtele CF, Yamada T. (1995). Simultaneous monitoring of intracellular pH and proton excretion during glycolysis by Streptococcus mutans and Streptococcus sanguis: effect of low pH and fluoride. Oral Microbiol Immunol10:355-359.
35.
James GA, Korber DR, Caldwell DE, Costerton JW (1995). Digital image analysis of growth and starvation responses of a surface-colonizing Acinetobacter sp. J Bacteriol177:907-915.
36.
Juillard V., le Bars D., Kunij Ers, Konings WN, Gripon J-C., Richard J. (1995). Oligopeptides are the main source of nitrogen for Lactococcus lactis during growth in milk. Appl Environ Microbiol61:3024-3030.
37.
Kelsay JL, McCague KE, Holden JM (1972). Variations in flow rate, metabolites and enzyme activities of fasting human parotid saliva. Arch Oral Biol17:439-445.
38.
Kjelleberg S., Albertson N., Flardh K., Holmquist L., Jouper-Jaan A., Marouga R., et al. (1993). How do non-differentiating bacteria adapt to starvation?Antonie van Leeuwenhoek63:333-341.
39.
Kobayashi H., Suzuki T., Unemoto T. (1986). Streptococcal cytoplasmic pH is regulated by changes in amount and activity of proton-translocating ATPase. J Biol Chem261:627-630.
40.
Kolter R, Siegele DA, Tormo A (1993). The stationary phase of bacterial life cycle. Ann Rev Microbiol 47:855-874. Konings WN, Poolman B, van Veen HW (1994). Solute transport and energy transduction in bacteria. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 65:369-380.
41.
Kramer R. (1994). Secretion of amino acids by bacteria: physiology and mechanism. FEMS Microbiol Rev13 :75-94.
42.
Lange R., Fischer D., Hengge-Aronis R. (1995). Identification of transcriptional start sites and the role of ppGpp in the expression of rpoS, the structural gene for the σs subunit of RNA polymerase in Escherichia coli. J Bacteriol177:4676-4680.
43.
Lee IS, Lin J., Hall HK, Bearson B., Foster JW (1995). The stationary-phase sigma factor σs (RpoS) is required for a sustained acid tolerance response in virulent Salmonella typhimurium. Mol Microbiol17:155-167.
44.
Lin J., Lee IS, Frey J., Slonczewski JL, Foster JW (1995). Comparative analysis of extreme acid survival in Salmonella typhimurium, Shigella flexneri, and Escherichia coli. J Bacteriol177:4097-4104.
45.
Listgarten MA, Mayo H., Trembley R. (1975). Development of dental plaque on epoxy resin crowns in man. J Periodontol46:10-26.
46.
Loewen PC, Hengge-Aronis R. (1994). The role of the sigma factor σs (KatF) in bacterial global regulation. Ann Rev Microbiol48:53-80.
47.
Marshall BJ, Barrett LJ, Prakash C., McCallum RW, Guerrant RL (1990). Urea protects Helicobacter (Campylobacter) pylori from the bactericidal effect of acid. Gastroenterology99:697-702.
48.
Matin A. (1991). The molecular basis of carbon-starvation-induced general resistance in Escherichia coli. Mol Microbiol5:3-10.
49.
Mayo JA, Zhu H., Harty Dws, Knox KW ( 1995). Modulation of glycosidase and protease activities by chemostat growth conditions in an endocarditis strain of Streptococcus sanguis . Oral Microbiol Immunol10:342-348.
50.
Moat AG, Foster JW , editors (1995). Microbial physiology. 3rd ed. New York: Wiley-Liss , p. 183.
51.
Morita RY (1993). Bioavailability of energy and the starvation state . In: Starvation in bacteria. Kjelleberg S, editor. New York: Plenum Press, pp. 1-23.
52.
Nystrom T. (1993). Global systems approach to physiology of the starved cell. In: Starvation in bacteria. Kjelleberg S, editor. New York: Plenum Press, pp. 129-150.
53.
Ohta H., Gottschal JC, Fukui K., Kato K. ( 1991). Aspartate and asparagine as electron acceptors for Wolinella recta. Oral Microbiol Immunol6:76-80.
54.
Park JT ( 1995). Why does Escherichia coli recycle its cell wall peptides ? Mol Microbiol17:421-426.
55.
Poolman B. (1993). Energy transduction in lactic acid bacteria. FEMS Microbiol Rev12:125-148.
56.
Potempa J., Pike R., Travis J. (1995). The multiple forms of trypsin-like activity in various strains of Porphyromonas gingivalis are due to the presence of either arg-gingipain or lys-gingipain. Infect Immun63:1176-1182.
57.
Pritchard GG, Coolbear T. (1993). The physiology and biochemistry of the proteolytic system in lactic acid bacteria. FEMS Microbiol Rev12:179-206.
58.
Quivey RG Jr, Faustoferri RC, Clancy KA, Marquis RE (1995). Acid adaptation in Streptococcus mutans UA159 alleviates sensitization to environmental stress due to RecA deficiency. FEMS Microbiol Lett126:257-262.
59.
Robrish S., Thompson J. (1989). Na+ requirement for glutamate-dependent sugar transport by Fusobacterium nucleatum ATCC 10953. Curr Microbiol19:329-334.
60.
Rogers AH, Zilm PS, Gully NJ, Pfennig AL (1988). Response of a Streptococcus sanguis strain to arginine-containing peptides. Infect Immun56:687-692.
61.
Rogers AH, Pfennig AL, Zilm PS ( 1992). The breakdown and utilization of peptides by strains of Fusobacterium nucleatum. Oral Microbiol Immunol7:299-303.
62.
Rosen G., Naor R., Rahamim E., Yishai R., Sela MN ( 1995). Proteases of Treponema denticola outer sheath and extracellular vesicles. Infect Immun63:3973-3979.
63.
Russell JB (1991). Resistance of Streptococcus bovis to acetic acid at low pH: relationship between intracellular pH and anion accumulation. Appl Environ Microbiol57:255-259.
64.
Russell JB (1992). Another explanation for the toxicity of fermentation acids at low pH: anion accumulation versus uncoupling. J Appl Bacteriol73:363-370.
65.
Russell JB, Cook GM ( 1995). Energetics of bacterial growth: balance of anabolic and catabolic reactions. Microbiol Rev59:48-62.
66.
Saier MH Jr, Chavaux S., Deutscher J., Reizer J., Ye J-J (1995). Protein phosphorylation and regulation of carbon metabolism in Gram-negative versus Gram-positive bacteria. Trends Biochem Sci20:267-271.
67.
Schellhorn HE (1994). Regulation of hydroperoxidase (catalase) expression in Escherichia coli. FEMS Microbiol Lett131:113-119.
68.
Sokatch JR (1969). Bacterial physiology and metabolism. London: Academic Press, pp. 163-193.
69.
Steiner H-Y., Naeder F., Becker JM (1995). The PTR family: a new group of peptide transporters . Mol Microbiol16 :825-834.
70.
Sturr MG, Marquis RE (1992). Comparative acid tolerances and inhibitor sensitivities of isolated F-ATPases of oral lactic acid bacteria. Appl Environ Microbiol58 :2287-2291.
71.
Tang-Larsen J., Claesson R., Edlund M-B., Carlsson J. (1995). Competition for peptides and amino acids among periodontal bacteria. J Periodont Res30:390-395.
72.
Thauer RK, Jungermann K., Decker K. (1977). Energy conservation in chemotrophic anaerobic bacteria. Bacteriol Rev41:100-180.
73.
Thevenot T., Brochu D., Vadeboncoeur C., Hamilton IR (1995). Regulation of ATP-dependent P-(Ser)-HPr formation in Streptococcus mutans and Streptococcus salivarius. J Bacteriol177:2751-2759.
74.
van der Hoeven JS, van den Kieboom Cwa, Camp Pjm (1990). Utilization of mucin by oral Streptococcus species . Antonie van Leeuwenhoek57:165-172.
75.
van der Hoeven JS, van den Kieboom Cwa, Schaeken Mjm (1995). Sulfate-reducing bacteria in the periodontal pocket . Oral Microbiol Immunol10:288-290.
76.
Voelker U., Voelker A., Maul B., Hecker M., Dufour A., Haldenwang WG (1995). Separate mechanisms activate σB of Bacillus subtilis in response to environmental and metabolic stresses. J Bacteriol177:3771-3780.
