This study investigates the overrepresentation of Black students in special education by looking at the association of race and related variables with referral, identification, and placement. Analyses were performed on a statewide sample of students and teachers to investigate relationships between student, teacher and school demographics, and special education identification and placement. The results find (1) black students assigned to black teachers are less likely to be identified for special services, (2) black students are less likely to be in inclusive placements with increases in white student enrollment, and (3) black students are more likely to be identified for special services and placed in more restrictive settings.
AhramR.Kramarczuk VoulgaridesC.CruzR. A. (2021). Understanding disability: High-quality evidence in research on special education disproportionality. Review of Research in Education, 45(1), 311–345.
2.
AlexanderD. (2009). What’s so special about special education? A critical study of white general education teachers’ perceptions regarding the referrals of African American/Black students for special education services. Texas A&M University.
3.
AlgozzineB.ChristensonS.YsseldykeJ. (1982). Probabilities associated with the referral to placement process. Teacher Education and Special Education, 5(3), 19–23. https://doi.org/10.1177/088840648200500304
4.
AmineQ. (2014). Assessed by a teacher like me: Race and teacher assessments. Education Finance and Policy, 9(3), 334–372.
5.
AssariS.CaldwellC. H. (2018). Teacher discrimination reduces school performance of African American youth: Role of gender. Brain Sciences, 8(10), 183. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci8100183
6.
AssariS.MardaniA.MalekiM.BoyceS.BazarganM. (2021). Black-White achievement gap: Role of race, school urbanity, and parental education. Pediatric Health, Medicine and Therapeutics, 12, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.2147/PHMT.S238877
7.
BaconE.BanksJ.YoungK.JacksonF. (2007). Perceptions of African American and European American teachers on the education of African American boys. Multiple Voices for Ethnically Diverse Exceptional Learners, 10(1–2), 160–172.
8.
BumpusJ. P.UmehZ.HarrisA. L. (2020). Social class and educational attainment: Do blacks benefit less from increases in parents’ social class status?Sociology of Race and Ethnicity, 6(2), 223–241. https://doi.org/10.1177/2332649219854465
9.
Burton-DouglasE. (2017). Teacher perception of the role of race and culture in special education referrals for African American males at an urban elementary/middle school [Morgan State University ProQuest Dissertations Publishing].
10.
CartledgeG.DukesC. (2009). Disproportionality of African American children in special education: Definition and dimensions. The SAGE Handbook of African American Education, 382–398. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412982788.n24
11.
CavendishW.ConnorD. J.GonzálezT. G.Jean-PierreP.CardK. (2018). Troubling “The problem” of racial overrepresentation in special education: A commentary and call to rethink research. Educational Review, 72, 567–582.
12.
ColeS. M.MurphyH. R.FrisbyM. B.GrossiT. A.BolteH. R. (2020). The relationship of special education placement and student academic outcomes. The Journal of Special Education, 54(4), 217–227. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466920925033
13.
ColeS. M.MurphyH. R.FrisbyM. B.RobinsonJ. (2023). The relationship between special education placement and high school outcomes. Journal of Special Education, 57(1), 13–23. https://doi.org/10.1177/00224669221097945
14.
ConnorD.CavendishW.GonzalezT.Jean-PierreP. (2019). Is a bridge even possible over troubled water? The field of special education negates the overrepresentation of minority students: A DisCrit analysis. Race Ethnicity and Education, 22(6), 723–745. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2019.1599343
15.
ConnorD. J.FerriB. A. (2005). Integration and inclusion- A troubling nexus: Race, disability, and special education. The Journal of African American History, 90(1–2), 107–127.
16.
CookB. G. (2014). A call for examining replication and bias in special education research. Remedial and Special Education, 35(4), 233–246. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932514528995
17.
CosierM. E.Causton-TheoharisJ. (2011). Economic and demographic predictors of inclusive education. Remedial and Special Education, 32(6), 496–505. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932510362513
18.
CruzR. A.RodlJ. E. (2018). An integrative synthesis of literature on disproportionality in special education. The Journal of Special Education, 52(1), 50–63. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466918758707
19.
DeverB.RainesT.DowdyE.HostutlerC. (2016). Addressing disproportionately in special education using a universal screening approach. The Journal of Negro Education85(1), 59–71.
20.
EgaliteA. J.KisidaB.WintersM. A. (2015). Representation in the classroom: The effect of own-race teachers on student achievement. Economics of Education Review, 45, 44–52.
21.
EhrenbergR. G.GoldhaberD. D.BrewerD. J. (1995). Do teachers’ race, gender, and ethnicity matter? Evidence from the National Educational Longitudinal Study of 1988. ILR Review, 48(3), 547–561. https://doi.org/10.1177/001979399504800312
22.
EitleT. M. (2002). Special education or racial segregation: Understanding variation in the representation of black students in educable mentally handicapped programs. The Sociological Quarterly, 43, 575–605.
23.
FarkasG.MorganP. L.HillemeierM. M.MitchellC.WoodsA. (2020). District-level achievement gaps explain Black and Hispanic overrepresentation in special education. Exceptional Children, 86, 374–392. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402919893695
FletcherJ.CoulterW.ReschlyD.VaughnS. (2005). Alternative approaches to the definition and identification of learning disabilities: Some questions and answers. Annals of Dyslexia, 54(2), 304–331. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-004-0015-y
26.
FordD. Y. (2012). Culturally different students in special education: Looking backward to move forward. Exceptional Children, 78(4), 391–405. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440291207800401
27.
GershensonS.HartC.HymanJ.LindsayC. A.PapageorgeN. W. (2022). The long-run impacts of same-race teachers. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 14(4), 300–342.
28.
GershensonS.HoltS. B.PapageorgeN. (2016). Who believes in me? The effect of student-teacher demographic match on teacher expectations. Economics of Education Review, 52, 209–224.
29.
GordonN. (2017). Race, poverty, and interpreting overrepresentation in special education. Brookings Institution. https://www.brookings.edu/research/race-povert y-and-interpreting-overrepresentation-in-special-education/
30.
GrindalT.SchifterL. A.SchwartzG.HehirT. (2019). Racial differences in special education identification and placement: Evidence across three states. Harvard Educational Review, 89(4), 525–553.
31.
GuttmannJ.Bar-TalD. (1982). Stereotypic perceptions of teachers. American Educational Research Journal, 19(4), 519–528. https://doi.org/10.2307/1162540
32.
HayesM. S.JingL.GershensonS. (2023). Who refers whom? The effects of teacher characteristics on disciplinary office referrals (Working Paper No. 22-665). Annenberg Institute at Brown University. https://doi.org/10.26300/ky3a-xz90
33.
HongS.LegetteK. (2023). Lead teacher, assistant teacher, and peer racial/ethnic match and child outcomes for black children enrolled in enhanced high-quality early care and education programs. Kean Publications. https://digitalcommons.kean.edu/keanpublications/117
Individuals With Disabilities Education Act, 20 U.S.C. § 1400 (2004).
36.
IrwinV.WangK.TezilT.ZhangJ.FilbeyA.JungJ.Bullock MannF.DiligR.ParkerS. (2023). Report on the condition of education 2023 (NCES 2023-144rev). U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2023144rev
37.
LeathS.MathewsC.HarrisonA.ChavousT. (2019). Racial identity, racial discrimination, and classroom engagement outcomes among black girls and boys in predominantly black and predominantly white school districts. American Educational Research Journal, 56(4), 1318–1352. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831218816955
38.
LindsayC. A.HartC. M. D. (2017). Exposure to same-race teachers and student disciplinary outcomes for black students in North Carolina. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 39(3), 485–510. https://doi.org/10.3102/0162373717693109
39.
LiuJ.HayesM.GershensonS. (2024). From referrals to suspensions: New evidence on racial disparities in exclusionary discipline. Journal of Urban Economics, 141, 103453.
40.
LiuJ.PennerE. K.GaoW. (2023). Troublemakers? The role of frequent teacher referrers in expanding racial disciplinary disproportionalities. Educational Researcher, 52(8), 469–481. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X231179649
41.
MorganH. (2020). Misunderstood and mistreated: Students of color in special education. Voices of Reform, 3(2), 71–81. https://doi.org/10.32623/3.100005
42.
MorganP. L. (2021). Unmeasured confounding and racial or ethnic disparities in disability identification. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 43(2), 351–361. https://doi.org/10.3102/0162373721991575
43.
MorganP. L.FarkasG.CookM.StrassfeldN. M.HillemeierM. M.PunW. H.SchusslerD. L. (2017). Are black children disproportionately overrepresented in special education? A best-evidence synthesis. Exceptional Children, 83(2), 181–198. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402916664042
44.
MorganP. L.FarkasG.HillemeierM. M.MaczugaS. (2017). Replicated evidence of racial and ethnic disparities in disability identification in US schools. Educational Researcher, 46(6), 305–322.
45.
MorganP. L.FarkasG.HillemeierM. M.MattisonR.MaczugaS.LiH.CookM. (2015). Minorities are disproportionately underrepresented in special education: Longitudinal evidence across five disability conditions. Educational Researcher, 44(5), 278–292. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X15591157
46.
MorganP. L.WoodsA. D.WangY.FarkasG.HillemeierM. M.MitchellC. (2023). Which students with disabilities are placed primarily outside of U.S. elementary school general education classrooms?Journal of Learning Disabilities, 56(3), 180–192. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222194221094019
47.
O’ConnorC.DeLuca FernandezS. (2006). Race, class, and disproportionality: Reevaluating the relationship between poverty and special education placement. Educational Researcher, 35, 6–11. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X035006006
48.
O’ConnorC.HillL. D.RobinsonS. R. (2009). Who’s at risk in school and what’s race got to do with it?Review of Research in Education, 33(1), 1–34. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X08327991
49.
OdegardT. N.FarrisE. A.MiddletonA. E.OslundE.Rimrodt-FriersonS. (2020). Characteristics of students identified with dyslexia within the context of state legislation. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 53, 366–379. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022219420914551
50.
O’ReillyC.NorthcraftG. B.SabersD. (1989). The confirmation bias in special education eligibility decisions. School Psychology Review, 18(1), 126–135.
51.
OswaldD. P.CoutinhoM. J.BestA. M.SinghN. N. (1989). Ethnic representation in special education: The influence of school-related economic and demographic variables. The Journal of Special Education, 32, 194–206. https://doi.org/10.1177/002246699903200401
52.
OswaldD. P.CoutinhoM. J.BestA. M.SinghN. N. (1999). Ethnic representation in special education: The influence of school-related economic and demographic variables. The Journal of Special Education, 32(4), 194–206. https://doi.org/10.1177/002246699903200401
53.
PapageorgeN. W.GershensonS.KangK. M. (2020). Teacher expectations matter. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 102(2), 234–251.
54.
RasheedD.BrownJ.DoyleS. L.JenningsP. (2019). The effect of teacher–child race/ethnicity matching and classroom diversity on children’s socio-emotional and academic skills. Child Development, 91(3), e597–e618. https://doi.org/91.10.1111/cdev.13275
55.
SamuelsC. A. (2016, May31). Are there too few minority students in special education?Education Week.
56.
SchifterL. A.GrindalT.SchwartzG.HehirT. (2019). Students from low-income families and special education. New York, NY: The Century Foundation.
ScottT. M.GageN. A.HirnR. G.HanH. (2019). Teacher and student race as a predictor for negative feedback during instruction. School Psychology Quarterly, 34, 22–31.
59.
Significant disproportionality in special education: Current trends and actions for impact. (2020). [National Center for Learning Disabilities].
60.
SkibaR.SimmonsA.RitterS.KohlerK.HendersonM.WuT. (2006). The context of minority disproportionality: Practitioner perspectives on special education referral. Teachers College Record, 108(7), 1424–1459. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9620.2006.00699.x
61.
SkibaR. J.ArtilesA. J.KozleskiE. B.LosenD. J.HarryE. G. (2016). Risks and consequences of oversimplifying educational inequities: A response to Morgan et al. (2015). Educational Researcher, 45(3), 221–225. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X16644606
62.
SolorzanoD. G. (1997). Images and words that wound: Critical race theory, racial stereotyping, and teacher education. Teacher Education Quarterly, 24(3), 5–19.
63.
SullivanA. L.SadehS.HouriA. K. (2019). Are school psychologists’ special education eligibility decisions reliable and unbiased? A multi-study experimental investigation. Journal of School Psychology, 77, 90–109.
64.
Title IV of the Civil Rights Act of1964, 42 U.S.C. § 2000d, et seq.
65.
TogutT. (2011). The gestalt of the school-to-prison pipeline: The duality of overrepresentation of minorities in special education and racial disparity in school discipline on minorities. The American University Journal of Gender, Social Policy, and the Law, 20(4), 163–181.
WelnerK.SkibaR. (2015). Big news or flawed research? The new special education controversy. Huffington Post.
68.
WoodsonL. A.HarrisS. (2018). Teacher and student demographic variables which predict teacher referrals of males for special education evaluation. Journal of At-Risk Issues, 21, 32–43.
69.
YsseldykeJ. E.VanderwoodM. L.ShrinerJ. (1997). Changes over the past decade in special education referral to placement probability: An incredibly reliable practice. Diagnostique, 23(1), 193–201. https://doi.org/10.1177/153450849702300102
