School facilities are increasingly seen as essential to achieving educational equity. By foregrounding often taken-for-granted school spaces, this conceptual article seeks to situate school design within broader antiracist efforts in education. To that end, I make a few critical contributions: (a) I shift attention to the social construction and contestation of school spaces; and (b) I develop a framework for dealing with racialized imaginaries of school spaces that goes beyond conventional equity applications. Applying this framework to school design literature and planning documents, I derive a blueprint to examine minoritized school spaces that encompasses aspects of culture, wellbeing, and power.
AggarwalU. (2016). The ideological architecture of whiteness as property in educational policy. Educational Policy, 30(1), 128–152. https://doi.org/10.1177/0895904815616486
2.
AlimH. S.ParisD. (2017). What is culturally sustaining pedagogy and why does it matter. In ParisD.AlimH. S. (Eds.), Culturally sustaining pedagogies: Teaching and learning for justice in a changing world (pp. 1–21). Teachers College Press.
3.
AndersonG. (2009). Advocacy leadership: towards a post-reform agenda in education. Routledge.
4.
AnyonJ. (2005). Radical possibilities: Public policy, urban education, and a new social movement. Routledge.
5.
AppsL.MacDonaldM. (2012). Classroom aesthetics in early childhood education. Journal of Education and Learning, 1(1), 49–59. https://doi.org/10.5539/jel.v1n1p49
6.
ArnoldC.LyonsJ.MungerJ.QuinnR. C.SmithT. L. (2010). Design guide for improving school safety in earthquakes, floods, and high winds. Risk Management Series. FEMA 424. Federal Emergency Management Agency.
AuW. (2010). Unequal by design: High-stakes testing and the standardization of inequality. Routledge.
9.
BahrS.SparksD. (2016). Changes in America’s public school facilities: From school year 1998–99 to school year 2012–13. Stats in Brief. NCES 2016-074 National Center for Education Statistics.
10.
BakerB. D. (2021). Educational inequality and school finance: Why money matters for America’s students. Harvard Education Press.
BarnardH. (1855). School architecture: Contributions to the improvement of school houses. H.W. Derby and Co.
13.
BeebeejaunY. (2017). Gender, urban space, and the right to everyday life. Journal of Urban Affairs, 39(3), 323–334.
14.
BondsA. (2019). Race and ethnicity I: Property, race, and the carceral state. Progress in Human Geography, 43(3), 574–583. https://doi.org/10.1177/0309132517751297
15.
BrownlowG. (2014). Building schools and community connections: Outreach and activism for new schools in southeast Los Angeles. In PattersonK.SilvermanR. (Eds.), Schools and urban revitalization: Rethinking institutions and community development (pp. 185–203). Routledge.
16.
ButlerA.SinclairK. A. (2020). Place matters: A critical review of place inquiry and spatial methods in education research. Review of Research in Education, 44(1), 64–96. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X20903303
17.
CelliniS. R.FerreiraF.RothsteinJ. (2010). The value of school facility investments: Evidence from a dynamic regression discontinuity design. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 125(1), 215–261. https://doi.org/10.1162/qjec.2010.125.1.215
18.
ChengI.II. (2020). Structural racialism in modern architectural theory. In ChengI.DavisC. L.WilsonM. O. (Eds.), Race and modern architecture: A critical history from the Enlightenment to the present (pp. 134–152). University of Pittsburgh Press.
ChristleC. A.JolivetteK.NelsonC. M. (2007). School characteristics related to high school dropout rates. Remedial and Special Education, 28(6), 325–339. https://doi.org/10.1177/07419325070280060201
CramptonF.WoodR. C.ThompsonD. C. (2015). Money and schools. Routledge.
23.
CramptonF. E. (2009). Spending on school infrastructure: Does money matter?Journal of Educational Administration, 47(3), 305–322. https://doi.org/10.1108/09578230910955755
CucchiaraM. B. (2013). Marketing schools, marketing cities: Who wins and who loses when schools become urban amenities. University of Chicago Press.
26.
DavisT. E. (2015). State and federal policies for school facility construction: A comparison of Michigan and Ohio. Educational Administration Quarterly, 51(1), 3–26.
Design as Protest. (n.d). Design justice demands: Cease the implementation of hostile architecture & landscapes. https://www.dapcollective.com/demands
29.
DixsonA. D.ChapmanT. K.HillD. A. (2005). Research as an aesthetic process: Extending the portraiture methodology. Qualitative Inquiry, 11(1), 16–26. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077800404270836
EitlandE.KlingensmithL.MacNaughtonP.Cedeno LaurentJ.SpenglerJ. (2017). Schools for health: Foundations for student success. Harvard TH Chan School of Public Health.
33.
FilardoM. (2021). State of our schools: America’s PK–12 facilities. 21st Century School Fund.
34.
FilardoM.VincentJ. (2014). A policy framework for joint use: Enabling and supporting community use of K–12 public school facilities. 21st Century School Fund and Center for Cities & Schools.
35.
FilardoM.VincentJ. M.SullivanK. (2019). How crumbling school facilities perpetuate inequality. Phi Delta Kappan, 100(8), 27–31.
36.
Finfgeld-ConnettD. (2014). Use of content analysis to conduct knowledge-building and theory-generating qualitative systematic reviews. Qualitative Research, 14(3), 341–352.
37.
FordD. (2016). Education and the production of space: Political pedagogy, geography, and urban revolution. Routledge.
FranzJ. (2019). Towards a spatiality of wellbeing. In HughesH.FranzJ.WillisJ. (Eds.), School spaces for student wellbeing and learning (pp. 3–19). Springer.
FuentesE. (2013). Political mothering: Latina and African American mothers in the struggle for educational justice. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 44(3), 304–319.
42.
FulliloveM. T. (2013). Urban alchemy: Restoring joy in America’s sorted-out cities. New Village Press.
GarciaJ.ShirleyV. (2013). Performing decolonization: Lessons learned from Indigenous youth, teachers and leaders’ engagement with critical indigenous pedagogy. Journal of Curriculum Theorizing, 28(2), 76–91.
45.
GillbornD. (2005). Education policy as an act of white supremacy: Whiteness, critical race theory and education reform. Journal of Education Policy, 20(4), 485–505.
46.
GoodenM. (2016). Dark space: Architecture, representation, black identity. Columbia University Press.
GutiérrezK. D.JurowA. S. (2016). Social design experiments: Toward equity by design. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 25(4), 565–598. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508406.2016.1204548
49.
HeersM.Van KlaverenC.GrootW.Maassen van DenB. H. (2016). Community schools: What we know and what we need to know. Review of Educational Research, 86(4), 1016–1051. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315627365
HorngE. L. (2009). Teacher tradeoffs: Disentangling teachers’ preferences for working conditions and student demographics. American Educational Research Journal, 46(3), 690–717.
52.
HorsfordS. D.ScottJ. T.AndersonG. L. (2018). The politics of education policy in an era of inequality: Possibilities for democratic schooling. Routledge.
53.
Houston Independent School District. (2017). Design guidelines. Construction and Facility Services, Facility Planning Division.
54.
HunterM. A.PattilloM.RobinsonZ. F.TaylorK. Y. (2016). Black placemaking: Celebration, play, and poetry. Theory Culture & Society, 33(7-8), 31–56.
55.
HunterM. A.RobinsonZ. (2018). Chocolate cities: The Black map of American life. University of California Press.
56.
IshimaruA. M. (2019). Just schools: Building equitable collaborations with families and communities. Teachers College Press.
57.
JonesE. S.WendelA. M. (2015). Characteristics of joint use agreements in school districts in the United States: Findings from the School Health Policies and Practices Study, 2012. Preventing Chronic Disease, 12, E50. https://doi.org/10.5888/pcd12.140560
58.
JordanW. J. (2010). Defining equity: Multiple perspectives to analyzing the performance of diverse learners. Review of Research in Education, 34, 142–178.
KhalifaM. A.JenningsM. E.BriscoeF.OleszweskiA. M.AbdiN. (2014). Racism? Administrative and community perspectives in data-driven decision making. Urban Education, 49(2), 147–181.
61.
KitzmillerE. M.Drake RodriguezA. (2021). Addressing our nation’s toxic school infrastructure in the wake of COVID-19. Educational Researcher, 51, 88–92. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x211062846
62.
KnappE. (2007). School building in developing countries: Is quantity the only relevant dimension of the problem? In KnappE.NoschisK.PasalarÇ. (Eds.), School building design and learning performance: With a focus on schools in developing countries. (pp. 9 – 17). 12th Architecture & Behaviour Colloquium.
63.
KumashiroK. (2004). Against common sense: Teaching and learning toward social justice. Routledge.
64.
LamoreauxD.SulkowskiM. L. (2020). An alternative to fortified schools: Using crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) to balance student safety and psychological well-being. Psychology in the Schools, 57(1), 152–165.
65.
LavyS.NixonJ. L. (2017). Applications, enrollment, attendance, and student performance in rebuilt school facilities: A case study. International Journal of Construction Education and Research, 13(2), 125–141.
66.
LipsitzG. (2007). The racialization of space and the spatialization of race theorizing the hidden architecture of landscape. Landscape Journal, 26(1), 10–23.
67.
LipsitzG. (2011). How racism takes place. Temple University Press.
68.
Los Angeles Unified School District. (2020). School design guide. Design Standards Department.
69.
MajdE.McCormackM.DavisM.CurrieroF.BermanJ.ConnollyF.LeafP.RuleA.GreenT.Clemons-ErbyD.GummersonC.KoehlerK. (2019). Indoor air quality in inner-city schools and its associations with building characteristics and environmental factors. Environmental Research, 170, 83–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2018.12.012
70.
MakrisM. V.BrownE. (2020). School development in urban gentrifying spaces: Developers supporting schools or schools supporting developers?Journal of Urban Affairs, 42(4), 571–594. https://doi.org/10.1080/07352166.2017.1360735
71.
MansJ.FisherT. (2017). The itinerant architect: Toward a land-based architectural practice. Journal of Architectural Education, 71(2), 252–260. https://doi.org/10.1080/10464883.2017.1340784
72.
MaxwellL. E. (2016). School building condition, social climate, student attendance and academic achievement: A mediation model. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 46, 206–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2016.04.009
MuhammadG. (2020). Cultivating genius: An equity framework for culturally and historically responsive literacy. Scholastic Incorporated.
76.
NadelsonL. S.MillerR. G.HuH.BangN. M.WalthallB. (2019). Is Equity on Their Mind? Documenting Teachers’ Education Equity Mindset. Documenting teachers’ education equity mindset. World Journal of Education, 9(5), 26–40. https://doi.org/10.5430/wje.v9n5p26
77.
NairP. (2014). Blueprint for tomorrow: Redesigning schools for student-centered learning. Harvard Education Press.
78.
NeilsonC. A.ZimmermanS. D. (2014). The effect of school construction on test scores, school enrollment, and home prices. Journal of Public Economics, 120, 18–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.08.002
79.
NievesA. D. (2018). An architecture of Education: African American Women Design the New South. University of Rochester Press.
80.
NogueraP. A. (2003). Schools, prisons, and social implications of punishment: Rethinking disciplinary practices. Theory into Practice, 42(4), 341–350.
81.
NogueraP. A.SyeedE. (2020). City schools and the American dream 2: the enduring promise of public education. Teachers College Press.
82.
NygreenK. (2016). Competing paradigms of educational justice: Parent organizing for educational equity in a neoliberal reform context. Equity & Excellence in Education, 49(2), 202–214. https://doi.org/10.1080/10665684.2016.1144832
83.
Oakland Unified School District. (2020). OUSD 2020 Facilities Master Plan. Department of Facilities Planning & Management, OUSD & MKThink.
84.
ObidahJ. E.HowardT. C. (2005). Preparing teachers for “Monday morning” in the urban school classroom: Reflecting on our pedagogies and practices as effective teacher educators. Journal of Teacher Education, 56(3), 248–255. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487105275920
85.
OmuraJ. D.CarlsonS. A.PaulP.SliwaS.OnufrakS. J.FultonJ. E. (2017). Shared use agreements between municipalities and public schools in the United States. Preventive Medicine, 95(Suppl.), S53–S59.
86.
PatelL. (2018). When justice is a lackey. In TuckE.YangK. W. (Eds.), Toward what justice?: Describing diverse dreams of justice in education (pp. 101–112). Routledge.
87.
PearlmanB. (2010). Designing new learning environments to support 21st century skills. In KayK. (Ed.), 21st century skills: Rethinking how students learn (pp. 117–148). Solution Tree Press.
88.
PunterJ. (2007). Developing urban design as public policy: Best practice principles for design review and development management. Journal of Urban Design, 12(2), 167–202.
89.
ReadyD. D.LeeV. E.WelnerK. G. (2004). Educational equity and school structure: School size, overcrowding, and schools-within-schools. Teachers College Record, 106(10), 1989–2014. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9620.2004.00424.x
RiveraM. D. (2017). What about the schools? Factors contributing to expanded state investment in school facilities. Intercultural Development Research Association.
93.
RobertsL. W. (2009). Measuring school facility conditions: An illustration of the importance of purpose. Journal of Educational Administration, 47(3), 368–380. https://doi.org/10.1108/09578230910955791
94.
Rucks-AhidianaZ.BierbaumA. H. (2015). Qualitative spaces: Integrating spatial analysis for a mixed methods approach. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 14(2), 92–103.
95.
SanoffH. (2015). Schools designed with community participation. In WaldenR. (Ed.), Schools for the future (pp. 149–171). Springer.
96.
ScheurichJ. J.BondsV. L.Phelps-MoultrieJ. A.CurrieB. J.CraytonT. A.ElfreichA. M.BhathenaC. D.KyserT. S.WilliamsN. A. (2017). An initial exploration of a community-based framework for educational equity with explicated exemplars. Race Ethnicity and Education, 20(4), 508–526. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2017.1299123
97.
SchindlerS. B. (2014). Architectural exclusion: Discrimination and segregation through physical design of the built environment. The Yale Law Journal, 124(6), 1934–2024.
98.
SchneiderM. (2002). Do school facilities affect academic outcomes?National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities.
SmithJ. J.StovallD. (2008). ‘Coming home’ to new homes and new schools: critical race theory and the new politics of containment. Journal of Education Policy, 23(2), 135–152.
101.
SojaE. (2010). Seeking spatial justice. University of Minnesota Press.
102.
St. Paul Public Schools. (2019). SPPS design standards. Facilities Department.
103.
TaylorA. (2009). Linking architecture and education: Sustainable design for learning environments. University of New Mexico Press.
104.
TuckE.YangK. W. (2018). Introduction: born under the rising sign of social justice. In TuckE.YangK. W. (Eds.), Toward what justice?: Describing diverse dreams of justice in education (pp. 1–17). Routledge.
105.
UlineC. L.WolseyT. D.Tschannen-MoranM.LinC. D. (2010). Improving the physical and social environment of school: A question of equity. Journal of School Leadership, 20(5), 597–632. https://doi.org/10.1177/105268461002000504
106.
VincentJ. (2014). Joint use of public schools: A framework for promoting healthy communities. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 34(2), 153–168. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739456X13513615
107.
VincentJ.JainL. (2015). Going it alone: Can California’s K-12 school districts adequately and equitably fund school facilities? Policy Research Working Paper. Center for Cities + Schools.
108.
WalsemannK. M.FiskC. E.DuesA. N. (2020). A spatial analysis of county-level education context and population health and wellbeing. Wellbeing, Space and Society. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2020.100002
109.
WarrenM.MappK. (2011). A match on dry grass: Community organizing as a catalyst for school reform. Oxford University Press.
110.
WeltonA. D.FreelonR. (2018). Community organizing as educational leadership: Lessons from Chicago on the politics of racial justice. Journal of Research on Leadership Education, 13(1), 79–104.
WileyA. (2017). A model school for a model city: Shaw Junior High School as a monument to planning reform. In WillisJ.Darian-SmithK. (Eds.), Designing schools: Space, place and pedagogy (158-174). Routledge.
113.
WilkinsC. L. (2007). The aesthetics of equity: Notes on race, space, architecture and music. University of Minnesota Press.
