When courts engage in educational policy making through what is called “public law litigation,” they set foot in unsettled territory. Framing the authors' work in legal studies literature, this article relays how one court engaged in a sweeping reform of special education in Chicago and teacher certification in the entire state of Illinois. Based on an extensive document analysis from primary and secondary sources, three specific ways in which public law litigation differs from policy making in the legislative branch and from traditional court behavior are examined: (a) the fit between problem and solution, (b) the issue of participation and representation, and (c) the tension between finality and flexibility. The conclusion is that policy entrepreneurs, government officials, and courts need to be aware of the issues and tensions in the process of judicial policy making to enhance the effectiveness and legitimacy of public law litigation remedies.
Abbott, R. A., et al. v. Burke, F. G. et al. III 136 NJ 444 (1994).
2.
Abbott, R. A., et al. v. Burke, F. G. et al. IV 149 N.J. 145 (1997).
3.
Abbott, R. A., et al. v. Burke, F. G. et al. V 153 N.J. 480 (1998).
4.
Allen v. McDonough. Consent Decree. (1976, June 23). Board of Education of the Hendrick Hudson Central School District v. Rowley, 458 U.S. 176 (1982).
5.
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 (1954).
6.
CBE Letter re: Benchmark Data. (2006, June 21).
7.
CBE Settlement Agreement (1998, January 16), Corey H. v. Board of Education, 995 F. Supp. 900 (N.D. Ill., 1998) (No. 92-CV-3409).
8.
Chayes, A. (1976). The role of the judge in public law litigation . Harvard Law Review, 89, 1281-1316.
9.
Corey H. v. Board of Education, 995 F. Supp. 900 (N.D. Ill., 1998).
10.
Daniel R. R. v. State Board of Education, 874 F.2d 1036 (5th Cir., 1989).
11.
Defendant CBE's Response to Report of David Rostetter, Ed.D. (1998, November 24), Corey H. v. Board of Education, 995 F. Supp. 900 (N.D. Ill., 1998) (No. 92-CV-3409).
12.
Designs for Change's statement on special education. (n.d.). Chicago: Designs for Change. Retrieved March 15, 2003, from http://www.designsforchange.org/sped.html .
13.
Diver, C. (1979). The judge as political powerbroker: Superintending structural change in public institutions. Virginia Law Review , 65, 43-106.
14.
Downs, A. (1972). Up and down with ecology-The "issue attention cycle." Public Interest, 28(2), 38-52.
15.
Eyer, T.L. (1999). Greater expectations: How the 1997 IDEA amendments raise the basic floor of opportunity for children with disabilities. Dickinson Law Review, 103(3), 613-637.
16.
Fairness Hearing. (1999, June 18). Corey H. v. Board of Education, 995 F. Supp. 900 (N.D. Ill., 1998) (No. 92-CV-3409).
17.
Firestone, W.A., Goertz, M.E., & Natriello, G. (1997). From cashbox to classroom: The struggle for fiscal reform and educational change in New Jersey. New York: Teachers College Press.
18.
Fiss, O. (1979). Foreword: The forms of justice. Harvard Law Review, 93, 1-58.
19.
Forte, L. (2000, June). Court likely to order certification changes . Catalyst, 11(9), 7-8.
20.
Goodridge v. Department of Public Health, 440 Mass. 309 (2003).
21.
House panel throws roadblock in front of special ed bill. ( 2000, March 22). Copley News Service. Retrieved from Lexis-Nexis.
22.
ISBE Settlement Agreement. (1999, June 18). Corey H. v. Board of Education, 995 F. Supp. 900 (N.D. Ill., 1998) (No. 92-CV-3409).
23.
ISBE Special Education Teacher Certification Structure. (2000, March 17). Submitted to the Federal Court Monitor in compliance with the Corey H. Settlement Agreement.
24.
Jeter v. Hewitt, 63 U.S. 352, (1859).
25.
Johns, B. (2001, July 31). Illinois federal court decision could change FAPE, LRE, and teacher certification. The Special Educator , 17(2). Retrieved from Lexus-Nexus.
26.
Johnson, S.F. (2003). Reexamining Rowley: A new focus in special education law. B.Y.U. Education and Law Journal, 2003(2), 561-586.
27.
Jose P. v. Ambach, 3 EHLR 551 (E.D. N.Y. 1979).
28.
Kerchner, C.T., & Koppich, J.E. (1993). A union of professionals: Labor relations and education reform. New York: Teachers College Press.
29.
Keyes, M.W., Hanley-Maxwell, C., & Capper, C.A. (1999). "Spirituality? It's the core of my leadership": Empowering leadership in an inclusive elementary school. Educational Administration Quarterly, 35(2), 203-237.
30.
Kingdon, J.W. (1995). Agendas, alternatives and public policies (2nd ed.). New York: HarperCollins.
31.
Labaree, D. (1997). Public goods, private goods: The American struggle over educational goals. American Educational Research Journal , 34(1), 39-81.
32.
LeCompte, M.D. & Priessle, J. (1993). Ethnography and qualitative design in educational research (2nd ed.). San Diego, CA: Academic.
33.
Margulies, P. (1999). The new class action jurisprudence and public interest law. New York University Law Review of Law and Social Change, 25, 487-538.
34.
Mayrowetz, D., & Weinstein, C.S. (1999). Sources of leadership for inclusive education: Creating schools for all children. Educational Administration Quarterly, 35(3), 423-449.
35.
Mead, J.F. (1999). The reauthorization process of the individuals with disabilities act: Expressions of equity. Journal for a Just and Caring Education, 5(4), 476-492.
36.
Memorandum, Opinion and Order. (1998, February 18). Corey H. v. Board of Education, 995 F. Supp. 900 (N.D. Ill., 1998) (No. 92-CV-3409).
37.
Mendell, D. (2006, June 29). Special ed in city takes budget hit: Chicago schools eliminate nearly 1,000 positions. Chicago Tribune, p. B3.
38.
Miller, S.R., & Gladden, R.M. (2002, June). Changing special education enrollments: Causes and distribution among schools. Chicago: Consortium on Chicago School Research.
39.
Mills v. Board of Education of DC, 348 F. Supp. 866 (D.D.C, 1972).
40.
Minute Order. (2004, February 23).
41.
Monitor's Brief in Support of the Plaintiff's Motion to Extend the ISBE Settlement Agreement. (2003, December 8). Corey H. v. Board of Education, 995 F. Supp. 900 (N.D. Ill., 1998) (No. 92-CV-3409).
42.
Monitor's Decision Regarding the Establishment of Targets and Benchmarks pursuant to Paragraph 18 of the Corey H. ISBE Settlement Agreement. (2000, February 4). Corey H. v. Board of Education, 995 F. Supp. 900 (N.D. Ill., 1998) (No. 92-CV-3409).
43.
Monitor's Education Connections Progress Report. (2006, January 18). Corey H. v. Board of Education, 995 F. Supp. 900 (N.D. Ill., 1998) (No. 92-CV-3409).
44.
Motion Hearing. (2000, October 5). Corey H. v. Board of Education, 995 F. Supp. 900 (N.D. Ill., 1998) (No. 92-CV-3409).
45.
Motion Hearing. (2001a, May 8). Corey H. v. Board of Education, 995 F. Supp. 900 (N.D. Ill., 1998) (No. 92-CV-3409).
46.
Motion Hearing. (2001b, August 15). Corey H. v. Board of Education, 995 F. Supp. 900 (N.D. Ill., 1998)(No. 92-CV-3409).
47.
Myndlawitz, M. (2003). A tale of three cities: Urban perspectives on special education. Washington, DC: Center on Education Policy.
48.
Neuborne, B. (1995). Brown at forty: Six visions. Teachers College Record, 96(4), 799-805.
49.
Noble, S., & Olsen, D. (2001, February 28). Judge allows hearings on changes in training, work of special-ed teachers. The State Journal Register. Retrieved from Lexus-Nexus.
50.
Oberti v. Board of Education of the Borough of Clementon School District, 789 F.Supp.1322, 75 Ed.Law Rep. 259 (D.N.J. 1992), 801 F.Supp. 1393 (D.N.J. 1992), aff'd 995 F.2d 1204, 83 Ed.Law Rep. 1009 (3d Cir. 1993).
51.
O'Connell, M. (1991). School reform Chicago style: How citizens organized to change public policy. Chicago: Center for Neighborhood Technology.
52.
Olsen, D. (2002a). Court upholds changes in special-ed teacher training . The State Journal Register. Retrieved from Lexus-Nexus.
53.
Olsen, D. (2002b). Governor signs special-ed bill: Judge likely to ignore law, proceed with changes to teacher training. The State Journal Register. Retrieved from Lexus-Nexus .
54.
O'Neil, J. (1994). Can inclusion work? A conversation with Jim Kauffman and Mara Sapon-Shevin. Educational Leadership, 52(4), 7-11.
55.
Orfield, G., & Yun, J.T. (1999). The resegregation in American schools. Cambridge, MA: The Civil Rights Project, Harvard University .
56.
Osborne, A.G., Jr., & Dimattia, P. (1994). The IDEA's least restrictive environment mandate: Legal implications. Exceptional Children, 61(1), 6-14.
57.
PARC v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, 334 F. Supp. 1257. (E.D. Pa., 1971).
58.
Plaintiffs' Motion for Preliminary or Permanent Injunction. (2006, August, 4). Corey H. v. Board of Education, 995 F. Supp. 900 (N.D. Ill., 1998) (No. 92-CV-3409).
59.
Plaintiffs' Response to the ISBE Proposed Compliance Plan. (1998, May 1). Corey H. v. Board of Education, 995 F. Supp. 900 (N.D. Ill., 1998) (No. 92-CV-3409).
60.
Rebell, M.A. (1986). Structural discrimination and the rights of the disabled. Georgetown Law Journal, 74, 1435-1489.
61.
Rebell, M.A. (1990a). Allen v. McDonough: Special education reform in Boston. In B. Flicker (Ed.), Justice in school systems: The role of the courts in education litigation (pp. 70-108). Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
62.
Rebell, M.A. (1990b). Jose P. v. Ambach: Special education reform in New York City. In B. Flicker (Ed.), Justice in school systems: The role of the courts in education litigation (pp. 25-69). Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
63.
Rebell, M.A., & Block, A.R. (1982). Educational policy making and the courts: An empirical study of judicial activism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
64.
Reid, L. v. ISBE, 289 F. 3d. 1009 (7th Cir., 2002).
65.
Reid L. v. ISBE, 358 F. 3d. 511 (7th Cir., 2004).
66.
Roberts, J.G. (2005, September 13). Roberts: I have no agenda. Washington Post, p. A7.
67.
Roncker v. Walter, 700 F.2d 1058n (5th Cir., 1983).
68.
Rosenberg, G. (1991). The hollow hope: Can courts bring about social change?Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
69.
Rowan, B., & Miskel, C.G. (1999). Institutional theory and the study of educational organizations. In J. Murphy & K. S. Louis (Eds.), Handbook of research on educational administration (2nd ed., pp. 359-383). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
70.
Sacramento Unified School District, Board of Education v. Rachel H., 14 F.3d 1398, 89 Ed.Law Rep. 57 (9th Cir. 1994).
71.
San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez, 411 U.S. 1 (1973).
72.
Sarason, S.B. (1996). Revisiting "the culture of the school and the problem of change." New York: Teachers College Press.
73.
Schattschneider, E.E. (1960). The semi-sovereign people: A realist's view of democracy in America. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
74.
Schoenberger, A.E. (1990). Desegregation in Chicago: Settlement without a trial. In B. Flicker (Ed.), Justice and school systems: The role of courts in education litigation (pp. 307-362). Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
75.
Second Amended Complaint. (1997, February 11). Corey H. v. Board of Education, 995 F. Supp. 900 (N.D. Ill., 1998) (No. 92-CV-3409).
76.
Seelye, K.Q. (2001, May 16). Bush task force on energy worked in mysterious ways. New York Times. Retrieved from http://infoweb.newsbank.com.
77.
Selected organizations' recent statements about IDEA regulations. (n.d.). Charlottesville, VA: Curry School of Education, University of Virginia. Retrieved May 30, 2006, from http://curry.edschool.virginia.edu/sped/projects/ose/information/IDEA/orgstates.html
78.
Shalala, D.A., & Kelly, J.A. (1973). Politics, the courts, and educational policy. Teachers College Record, 75(2), 223-237.
79.
Sixth Identification of District-Wide Findings. (2006, May 27). Corey H. v. Board of Education, 995 F. Supp. 900 (N.D. Ill., 1998) (No. 92-CV-3409).
80.
Special Education Certification Act, 105 Ill. Cod. Stat. §§ 5/21-28 (2002).
81.
Stake, R.E. (1995). The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
82.
Status Hearing. (2000a, January 5). Corey H. v. Board of Education, 995 F. Supp. 900 (N.D. Ill., 1998) (No. 92-CV-3409).
83.
Status Hearing (2000b, April 28). Corey H. v. Board of Education, 995 F. Supp. 900 (N.D. Ill., 1998) (No. 92-CV-3409).
84.
Sturm, S.P. (1991). A normative theory of public law remedies. Georgetown Law Journal, 79, 1357-1446.
85.
Sultan, A. (2001, February 9). Union decries changes in special education; Illinois proposes new rules to conform with judge's order. St. Louis Post-Dispatch, p. D1.
86.
Summary and Analysis of Public Comment on Text of "Transition Rules." (2001, April 30). Corey H. v. Board of Education, 995 F. Supp. 900 (N.D. Ill., 1998) (No. 92-CV-3409).
87.
Swidler, A. (1986). Culture in action: Symbols and strategies. American Sociological Review, 51(2), 273-286.
88.
Thousand, J.S., & Villa, R.A. (1995). Managing complex change toward inclusive schooling . In R. A. Villa & J. S. Thousand (Eds.), Creating an inclusive school (pp. 51-79). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
89.
Tyack, D., & Cuban, L. (1995). Tinkering toward utopia: A century of public school reform. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
90.
Weitzman-Soltman, S., & Moore, D. (2000, November 17). Ending illegal segregation of Chicago's students with disabilities: Strategy, implementation, and implications of the Corey H. lawsuit. Paper presented at the Conference on Minority Issues in Special Education, Cambridge, MA .
91.
Welner, K.G., & Kuppermintz, H. (2004). Rethinking expert testimony in education rights litigation. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 26(2), 127-142.
92.
Wright, C., Miller, A., & Cooper, E. (2002). Federal practice and procedure (2nd ed.). St. Paul, MN: West Group.
93.
Ysseldyke, J.E., Thurlow, M., Algozzine, B., Shriner, J., & Gilman, C. (1993). National goals, national standards, national tests: Concerns for all (not virtually all) students with disabilities (Synthesis Rep. No. 11). Minneapolis, MN: National Center on Educational Outcomes.
94.
Yudof, M.G., Kirp, D.L., Levin, B., & Moran, R.F. (2002). Educational policy and the law (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
95.
Zuckerman, L. (2001, September 21). A nation challenged: The bailout. Critics raise concerns on funds proposed for troubled airlines. New York Times. Retrieved June 7, 2006, from http://infoweb.newsbank.com.
