Sage Journals: Discover world-class research

Abstract

The myriad hours and considerable effort expended by women in unpaid labor at home can have profound effects on their mental, physical, relational, vocational, and economic health. To date, many vocational psychologists have neglected to focus on unpaid work in their research or highlight unpaid work in their theories. Unpaid work in women’s lives is most deserving of increased scholarly attention. Thus, the purposes of this article are to provide an overview of theory and research related to unpaid work, highlight three types of unpaid work, describe the effects of unpaid work on women’s lives, and provide recommendations for future research and practice in vocational psychology to advance understanding regarding unpaid work in women’s lives.

Keywords

unpaid work career development of women housework childcare end-of-life care care work

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Abele

Spurk

(2011). The dual impact of gender and the influence of parenthood on men’s and women’s career development: Longitudinal findings. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 30, 225–232. doi:10.1177/0165025411398181

Aguiar

Hurst

(2006). Measuring trends in leisure: The allocation of time over five decades. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 122, 969–1006. doi:10.1162/qjec.122.3.969

Amstad

F. T.

Meier

L. L.

Fasel

Elfering

Semmer

N. K.

(2011). A meta-analysis of work-family conflict and various outcomes with a special emphasis on cross-domain versus matching-domain relations. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 12, 151–169. doi:10.1037/a0022170

Arrighi

B. A.

Maume

D. J.

(2000). Workplace subordinations and men’s avoidance of housework. Journal of Family Issues, 21, 464–487. doi:10.1177/019251300021004003

Artis

J. E.

Pavalko

E. K.

(2003). Explaining the decline in women’s household labor: Individual change and cohort differences. Journal of Marriage and Family, 65, 746–761. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2003.00746.x

Askari

S. F.

Liss

Erchull

M. J.

Staebell

S. E.

Axelson

S. J.

(2010). Men want equality but women don’t expect it: Young adults’ expectations for participation in household and child care chores. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 34, 243–252. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2010.01565.x

Badr

Acitelli

L. K.

(2008). Attachment insecurity and perceptions of housework: Associations with marital well-being. Journal of Family Psychology, 22, 313–319. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.22.2.313

Batalova

J. A.

Cohen

P. N.

(2002). Premarital cohabitation and housework: Couples in cross-national perspective. Journal of Marriage and Family, 64, 743–755. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2002.00743.x

Beck

C. T.

(2001). Predictors of postpartum depression: An update. Nursing Research, 50, 275–285. doi:10.1097/00006199-200109000-00004

10.

Becker

G. S.

(1965). A theory of the allocation of time. The Economic Journal, 75, 493–517. doi:10.2307/2228949

11.

Betz

(2008). Women’s career development. In Denmark

F. L.

Paludi

M. A.

(Eds.), Psychology of women: A handbook of issues and theories (2nd ed., pp. 717–752). Westport, CT: Praeger.

12.

Bevans

M. F.

Sternberg

E. M.

(2012). Caregiving burden, stress, and health effects among family caregivers of adult cancer patients. Journal of the American Medical Association, 307, 398–403. doi:10.1001/jama.2012.29

13.

Bianchi

S. M.

Folbre

Wolf

(2012). Unpaid care work. In Folbre

(Ed.), For love and money: Care provision in the United States (pp. 40–64). New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.

14.

Bianchi

S. M.

Milkie

M. A.

(2010). Work and family research in the first decade of the 21st century. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72, 705–725. doi:10.111/j.1741-3737.2010.00726.x

15.

Bianchi

S. M.

Milkie

M. A.

Sayer

L. C.

Robinson

J. P.

(2000). Is anyone doing the housework? Trends in the gender division of household labor. Social Forces , 79, 191–228. doi:10.2307/2675569

16.

Blau

F. D.

Brinton

M. C.

Grusky

D. B

. (2006). The declining significance of gender? New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation. Retrieved from http://public.eblib.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=4416754

17.

Blood

R. O.

Wolfe

D. M.

(1960). Husbands & wives: The dynamics of married living. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.

18.

Blustein

D. L.

(2011). A relational theory of working. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 79, 1–17. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2010.10.004

19.

Bryan

M. L.

Sevilla-Sanz

(2008). Does housework lower wages? Evidence for Britain. Oxford Economic Papers, 63, 187–210. doi:10.1093/oep/gpq011

20.

Budig

M. J.

England

(2001). The wage penalty for motherhood. American Sociological Review, 66, 204–225. doi:10.2307/2657415

21.

Budig

M. J.

Folbre

(2004). Activity, proximity or responsibility? Measuring parental childcare time. (pp. 51–68). In Folbre

Bittman

(Eds.), Family time: The social organization of care. New York, NY: Routledge.

22.

Byron

(2005). A meta-analytic review of work–family conflict and its antecedents. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 67, 169–198. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2004.08.009

23.

Cavanagh

Strauss

Cicconi

Griffiths

Wyper

Jones

(2013). A randomized controlled trial of a brief online mindfulness-based intervention. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 51, 573–578.

24.

Claffey

S. T.

Mickelson

K. D.

(2009). Division of household labor and distress: The role of perceived fairness for employed mothers. Sex Roles, 60, 819–831. doi:10.1007/s11199-008-9578-0

25.

Clark

S. C.

(2000). Work/family border theory: A new theory of work/family balance. Human Relations, 53, 747–770.

26.

Coltrane

(2000). Research on household labor: Modeling and measuring the social embeddedness of routine family work. Journal of Marriage and Family, 62, 1208–1233. doi:10.111/j.1741-3737.2000.01208.x

27.

Craig

(2006). Does father care mean fathers share? A comparison of how mothers and fathers in intact families spend time with children. Gender & Society, 20, 259–281. doi:10.1177/0891243205285212

28.

Cunningham

(2001). Parental influences on the gendered division of housework. American Sociological Review, 66, 184–203. doi:10.2307/2657414

29.

Davis

S. N.

Greenstein

T. N.

(2013). Why study housework? Cleaning as a window into power in couples. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 5, 63–71. doi:10.1111/jftr.12004

30.

Davis

S. N.

Greenstein

T. N.

Marks

J. P. G.

(2007). Effects of union type on division of household labor: Do cohabiting men really perform more housework? Journal of Family Issues, 28, 1246–1272. doi:10.1177/0192513X07300968

31.

Dentinger

Clarkberg

(2002). Informal caregiving and retirement timing among men and women: Gender and caregiving relationships in late midlife. Journal of Family Issues, 23, 857–879. doi:10.1177/019251302236598

32.

Deven

Moss

(2002). Leave arrangements for parents: Overview and future outlook. Community, Work & Family, 5, 237–255. doi:10.1080/1366880022000041766

33.

Doucet

(2015). Parental responsibilities: Dilemmas of measurement and gender equality. Journal of Marriage and Family, 77, 224–242. doi:10.1111/jomf.12148

34.

Duffy

R. D.

Blustein

D. L.

Diemer

M. A.

Autin

K. L.

(2016). The psychology of working theory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 63, 127–148. doi:10.1037/cou0000140

35.

Eisler

Otis

(2014). Unpaid and undervalued care work keeps women on the brink. Retrieved from http://shriverreport.org/unpaid-and-undervalued-care-work-keeps-women-on-the-brink/#_edn2

36.

Ehrenberg

M. F.

Gearing-Small

Hunter

M. A.

Small

B. J.

(2001). Childcare task division and shared parenting attitudes in dual-earner families with young children. Family Relations, 50, 143–153. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3729.2001.00143.x

37.

England

Folbre

Leana

(2012). Motivating care. In Folbre

(Ed.), For love and money: Care provision in the United States (pp. 21–39). New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.

38.

Erickson

R. J.

(2005). Why emotion work matters: Sex, gender, and the division of household labor. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67, 337–351. doi:10.1111/j.0022-2445.2005.00120.x

39.

Evertsson

Nermo

(2007). Changing resources and the division of housework: A longitudinal study of Swedish couples. European Sociological Review, 23, 455–470. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2012.01007.x

40.

Fan

P. L.

Marini

(2000). Influences on gender-role attitudes during the transition to adulthood. Social Science Research, 29, 258–283. doi:10.1006/ssre.1999.0669

41.

Ferrant

Pesando

L. M.

Nowacka

(2014). Unpaid care work: The missing link in the analysis of gender gaps in labour outcomes. Paris, France: OECD Development Centre.

42.

Ferree

M. M.

(1990). Beyond separate spheres: Feminism and family research. Journal of Marriage and Family, 52, 866–884. doi:10.2307/353307

43.

Fetterolf

J. C.

Eagly

A. H.

(2011) Do young women expect gender equality in their future lives? An answer from a possible selves experiment. Sex Roles, 65, 83–93. doi:10.1007/s11199-011-9981-9

44.

Folbre

(2012). For love and money: Care provision in the United States. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.

45.

Frisco

M. L.

Williams

(2003). Perceived housework equity, marital happiness, and divorce in dual-earner households. Journal of Family Issues, 24, 51–73. doi:10.1177/0192513X02238520

46.

Fuwa

(2004). Macro-level gender inequality and the division of household labor in 22 countries. American Sociological Review, 69, 751–767. doi:10.1177/000312240406900601

47.

Ganginis Del Pino

O’Brien

K. M.

Mereish

Miller

(2013). Leaving before she leaves: Considering future family in career plans. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 60, 462–470. doi:10.1037/a0032651

48.

Geist

(2005). The welfare state and the home: Regime differences in the domestic division of labour. European Sociological Review, 21, 23–41. doi:10.1093/esr/jci002

49.

Girgis

Lambert

Johnson

Waller

Currow

(2013). Physical, psychosocial, relationship, and economic burden of caring for people with cancer: A review. Journal of Oncology Practice, 9, 197–202. doi:10.1200/JOP.2012.000690

50.

Goldberg

A. E.

Perry-Jenkins

(2004). Division of labor and working-class women’s well-being across the transition to parenthood. Journal of Family Psychology, 18, 225–236. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.18.1.225

51.

Gornick

J. C.

Meyers

M. K.

(2003). Families that work: Policies for reconciling parenthood and employment. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.

52.

Graham

J. W.

Green

C. A.

(1984). Estimating the parameters of a household production function with joint products. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 66, 277–282. doi:10.2307/1925828

53.

Grant-Vallone

E. J.

Ensher

E. A.

(2011). Opting in between: Strategies used by professional women with children to balance work and family. Journal of Career Development, 38, 331–348.

54.

Greenhaus

J. H.

Beutell

N. J.

(1985). Sources of conflict between work and family roles. Academy of Management Review, 10, 76–88.

55.

Greenhaus

J. H.

Powell

G. N.

(2006). When work and family are allies: A theory of work-family enrichment. Academy of Management Review, 31, 72–92.

56.

Grigoryeva

(2014). When gender trumps everything: The division of parent care among siblings. Princeton, NJ: Center for the Study of Social Organization.

57.

Gronau

(1977). Leisure, home production and work–the theory of the allocation of time revisited. Journal of Political Economy, 85, 1099–1124. doi:10.1086/260629

58.

Gupta

(2007). Autonomy, dependence, or display? The relationship between married women’s earnings and housework. Journal of Marriage and Family, 69, 399–417. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2007.00373.x

59.

Heppner

M. J.

(2013). Women, men, and work: The long road to gender equity. In Brown

S. D.

Lent

R. W.

(Eds.), Career development and counseling: Putting theory and research to work (pp. 187–214). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

60.

Hersch

(2009). Home production and wages: Evidence from the American Time Use Survey. Review of Economics of the Household, 7, 159–178. doi:10/17848/1075-8445.16(1)-2

61.

Hintz

Frazier

P. A.

Meredith

(2015). Evaluating an online stress management intervention for college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 62, 137–147. doi:10.1037/cou0000014

62.

Hook

J. L.

(2006). Care in context: Men’s unpaid work in 20 countries, 1965–2003. American Sociological Review, 71, 639–660. doi:10.1177/000312240607100406

63.

Jung

Heppner

M. J.

(2015). Work of full-time mothers: Putting voice to the relational theory of working. The Career Development Quarterly, 63, 253–267. doi:10.1002/cdq.12017

64.

Kawamura

Brown

S. L.

(2010). Mattering and wives’ perceived fairness of the division of household labor. Social Science Research, 39, 976–986.

65.

Keeney

Boyd

E. M.

Sinha

Westring

A. F.

Ryan

A. M.

(2013). From “work–family” to “work–life”: Broadening our conceptualization and measurement. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 82, 221–237.

66.

Kehl

K. A.

Kirchhoff

K. T.

Kramer

B. J.

Hovland-Scafe

(2009). Challenges facing families at the end of life in three settings. Journal of Social Work in End-of-Life & Palliative Care, 5, 144–168. doi:10.1080/15524250903555080

67.

Keith

Malone

(2005). Housework and the wages of young, middle-aged, and older workers. Contemporary Economic Policy, 23, 224–241. doi:10.1093/cep/byi017

68.

Kendel

Dunkel

Lehmkuhl

Hetzer

Regitz-Zagrosek

(2008). Does time spent on household activities or housework stress complicate recovery following coronary artery bypass surgery? Women & Health, 48, 325–338. doi:10.1080/03630240802463525

69.

Kimmel

Connelly

(2007). Mothers’ time choices: Caregiving, leisure, home production, and paid work. The Journal of Human Resources, 42, 643–681.

70.

Kooreman

Kapteyn

(1987). A disaggregated analysis of the allocation of time within the household. Journal of Political Economy, 95, 223–249. doi:10.1086/261453

71.

Knudsen

Waerness

(2007). National context and spouses’ housework in 34 countries. European Sociological Review, 24, 97–113. doi:10.1093/esr/jcm037

72.

Kramer

B. J.

Boelk

A. Z.

(2015). Correlates and predictors of conflict at the end of life among families enrolled in hospice. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 50, 155–162. doi:10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2015.02.026

73.

Lachance-Grzela

(2012). Mattering moderates the link between gender ideology and perceived fairness of the division of household labor. Interpersona: An International Journal on Personal Relationships, 6, 163–175. doi:10.5964/ijpr.v6i2.98

74.

Lachance-Grzela

Bouchard

(2010). Why do women do the lion’s share of housework?: A decade of research. Sex Roles, 63, 767–780. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9797-z

75.

Lewis

Smithson

(2006). Final report of the EU framework five study, transitions: Gender, parenthood, and the changing European workplace. RIHSCH, Manchester Metropolitan University, England.

76.

Lincoln

A. E.

(2008). Gender, productivity, and the marital wage premium. Journal of Marriage and Family, 70, 806–814. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2008.00523.x

77.

MetLife Mature Market Institute. (2011). The MetLife study of caregiving costs to working caregivers: Double jeopardy for baby boomers caring for their parents. Retrieved from http://www.caregiving.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/mmi-caregiving-costs-working-caregivers.pdf

78.

Milkie

M. A.

Bianchi

S. M.

Mattingly

M. J.

Robinson

J. P.

(2002). Gendered division of childrearing: Ideals, realities, and the relationship to parental well-being. Sex Roles, 47, 21–38. doi:10.1023/A:1020627602889

79.

Miranda

(2011). Cooking, caring and volunteering: Unpaid work around the world (OECD Social Employment and Migration Working Papers No. 116). doi:10.1787/5kghrjm8s142-en

80.

Morgan

Williams

L.A.

Trussardi

Gott

(2016). Gender and family caregiving at the end-of-life in the context of old age: A systemic review. Palliative Medicine, 30, 616–624.

81.

National Institute on Aging. (2015). End of life: Helping with comfort and care. Retrieved from https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/publication/end-life-helping-comfort-and-care/providing-comfort-end-life

82.

Newkirk

Perry-Jenkins

Sayer

A. G.

(2017). Division of household and childcare labor and relationship conflict among low-income new parents. Sex Roles, 64, 319–333. doi:10.1007/s11199-016-0604-3

83.

O’Brien

K. M.

Friedman

S. M.

Tipton

L. C.

Linn

S. G.

(2000). Attachment, separation, and women’s vocational development: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 47, 301–315. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.47.3.301

84.

O’Brien

K. M.

Ganginis Del Pino

H. V.

Yoo

S. K.

Cinamon

R. G.

Han

(2014). Work, family, support, and depression: Employed mothers in Israel, Korea and the United States. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 61, 461–472. doi:10.1037/a0036339

85.

O’Brien

K. M.

Sauber

Merson

E. S.

Chronis-Tuscano

(2017). To work or not to work? Mothers of children with ADHD. Journal of Career Development, 44, 239–250. doi: 10.1177/0894845316646219

86.

O’Brien

K. M.

Yoo

S. K.

Kim

Y. H.

Cho

Salahuddin

N. (

2017). Good mothering: An instrument development study. Unpublished manuscript.

87.

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. (2012). Labor force participation rate by sex, 15+, 15-64 and 15-24 years old. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/gender/data/labourforceparticipationbysex15and15-24yearsold.htm

88.

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. (2016). Employment: Time spent in paid and unpaid work, by sex. Retrieved from http://stats.oecd.org/index.aspx?queryid=54757

89.

Parkman

A. M.

(2004). Bargaining over housework. American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 63, 765–794.

90.

Perrone

K. M.

Ægisdóttir

Webb

L. K.

Blalock

R. H.

(2006). Work-family interface: Commitment, conflict, coping, and satisfaction. Journal of Career Development, 32, 286–300. doi:10.1177/0894845305283002

91.

Pew Research Center. (2013). Modern parenthood: Roles of moms and dads converge as they balance work and family. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center.

92.

Reynolds-Dobbs

Thomas

K. M.

Harrison

M. S.

(2008). From mammy to superwoman: Images that hinder Black women’s career development. Journal of Career Development, 35, 129–150.

93.

Richardson

M. S.

(2012). Counseling for work and relationship (Major contribution). The Counseling Psychologist, 40, 190–242. doi:10.1177/001100001

94.

Robbins

(1930). The present position of economic science. Economica, 28, 14–24. doi:10.2307/2548327

95.

Roeters

van der Lippe

Kluwer

E. S.

(2009). Parental work demands and the frequency of child-related routine and interactive activities. Journal of Marriage and Family, 71, 1193–1204. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2009.00663.x

96.

Schultheiss

D. E. P.

(2009). To mother or matter: Can women do both? Journal of Career Development, 36, 25–48.

97.

Stajduhar

K. I.

Funk

Toye

Grande

G. E.

Aoun

Todd

C. J.

(2010). Part 1: Home-based family caregiving at the end of life: A comprehensive review of published quantitative research (1998-2008). Palliative Medicine, 24, 573–593.

98.

Stevens

Kiger

Riley

P. J.

(2001). Working hard and hardly working: Domestic labor and marital satisfaction among dual-earner couples. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63, 514–526. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2001.00514.x

99.

Sullivan

(2013). What do we learn about gender by analyzing housework separately from child care? Some considerations from time-use evidence. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 5, 72–84. doi:10.1111/jftr.12007

100.

Tang

S. T.

Huang

Wei

Chang

Chen

Chou

(2012). Trajectories of caregiver depressive symptoms while providing end-of-life care. Psycho-Oncology, 22, 2702–2710. doi:10.1002/pon.3334

101.

United Nations. (2013). Report of Sepulveda Carmona, M., the Special Rapporteur on Extreme Poverty and Human Rights: Unpaid Care work and women’s human rights. Retrieved from https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N13/422/71/PDF/N1342271.pdf?OpenElement

102.

United Nations Statistics Division. (2015). The world’s women 2015: Trends and statistics. Retrieved from http://unstats.un.org/unsd/gender/chapter4/chapter4.html

103.

United States Census Bureau. (2016). Facts for features: Mother’s day. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/newsroom/facts-for-features/2016/cb16-ff09.html

104.

U.S. Department of Labor. (2014). American time-use survey: Charts by topic: Household activities. Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/TUS/CHARTS/HOUSEHOLD.HTM

105.

Wallston

B. S.

Foster

M. A.

Berger

(1978). I will follow him: Myth, reality, or forced choice—job-seeking experiences of dual-career couples. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 3, 9–21. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1978.tb00521.x

106.

Walsh

W. B.

Heppner

(2006). Handbook of career counseling for women. New York, NY: Routledge.

107.

Whiston

S. C.

Cinamon

R. G.

(2015). The work-family interface: Integrating research and career counseling practice. The Career Development Quarterly, 63, 44–56. doi:10.1002/j.2161-0045.2015.00094.x

108.

White House Council of Economic Advisers. (2014a). Work-life balance and the economics of workplace flexibility. Retrieved from https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/docs/updated_workplace_flex_report_final_0.pdf

109.

White House Council of Economic Advisers. (2014b). Eleven facts about American families and work. Retrieved from https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/docs/eleven_facts_about_family_and_work_final.pdf

110.

White House Council of Economic Advisers. (2015). Gender pay gap: Recent trends and explanations. Retrieved from https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/docs/equal_pay_issue_brief_final.pdf

The Profound Influence of Unpaid Work on Women’s Lives: An Overview and Future Directions

Abstract

Keywords

Get full access to this article

References