Insights for female teachers on managing learner discipline from perceptions of teachers and parents in Vuwani,Limpopo,South Africa

Abstract

The thrust of this qualitative study is the insights for female teachers about management of learner discipline from three South African primary schools. The sample comprised of nine purposively selected participants – heads of departments, teachers, and parents. Individual interviews and thematic analysis were used to generate and analyze data. Findings revealed challenges that were brought about by the abolition of corporal punishment in South African schools, thus, impacting on learner discipline negatively. Insightfully, this study requires female teachers to enforce disciplinary measures without allowing their innate caring nature to suppress enforcement because learners often misrepresent them for weakness. The study concludes that the success of managing learner discipline lie greatly in putting in place rules that ensure orderliness. With it, the punishment or ‘beating’ of learners for what is not wrong but for what teachers do not like in some instances could be avoided.

Keywords

School improvement schools students teachers

Introduction and background

Learner discipline has become a significant issue in South African schools following the abolition of corporal punishment. In 1996, corporal punishment was formally banned in South African schools, deemed a violation of children's rights under the South African Bill of Rights. Elsewhere, for example in Zimbabwe, corporal punishment is no longer legal and cannot be used as a means of corrective tool (Magwa and Mayisela, 2024). Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children (2022) has documented that in 63 countries including the USA, corporal punishment is banned because it is considered as a form of violence against children worldwide.

The ban necessitated the adoption of alternative methods for maintaining discipline, which has remained a concern for educators. Over the years, concerns over maintaining safety and discipline in schools across South Africa have persisted. It has become increasingly challenging for teachers—particularly female educators—and school management to maintain effective discipline (Mulianti and Sulisworo, 2023). Baloyi's (2022) research, titled a pastoral care of female teachers facing work-related challenges – a South African view, indicates that the challenges faced by South African teachers are extensive, with female teachers particularly impacted.

This study is specifically situated within Limpopo Province, a rural region in South Africa that faces unique educational and socioeconomic challenges. Limpopo, one of South Africa's nine provinces, has a high proportion of under-resourced schools, limited educational infrastructure, and prevalent socioeconomic hardships. These factors exacerbate challenges in maintaining discipline and ensuring an environment conducive to learning, further complicating the shift from corporal punishment to alternative disciplinary approaches.

The dynamics of school discipline in Limpopo reflect broader national issues within a context where resource constraints and cultural expectations intersect. Understanding discipline management in this region sheds light on the complexities educators and administrators face in rural South African schools. It is essential to note that Limpopo Province, located in the northernmost part of South Africa, is characterised by vast rural areas with limited access to resources, infrastructure, and socioeconomic development. As such, schools in this province often face challenges that may differ from urban South African schools, including heightened resource constraints and unique cultural expectations, making learner discipline an especially complex issue in this region.

The effective management of learner discipline is essential for productive teaching and learning. Learner discipline promotes order in the school environment by establishing clear expectations for appropriate learner behaviour. Furthermore, the responsibility lies with the school management team to uphold and monitor effective disciplinary practices to facilitate uninterrupted teaching and learning. School discipline aims to foster an environment that is conducive to learning and safe for both learners and teachers (Masekela et al., 2024). Effective discipline supports the school's success by aligning its vision and strategies with achievable goals, as discipline is experienced differently by individual educators (Padayachee and Gcelu, 2022).

Problem statement and the aim of the study

Learner discipline is both a philosophical and policy imperative. Some educators or teachers have considered corporal punishment to be reintroduced since its abolition has left them with no effective method of enforcing positive discipline in schools (Lawer, 2019). Lawer further emphasises that many educators who subscribe to corporal punishment as a measure to control learners’ behaviour assume that corporal punishment has the potency to mend a child's misbehaviour. Disciplinary issues increased after learners became aware of its abolition. Nkuna (2022) asserts that teachers started experiencing rapid disciplinary challenges in schools following the banning of corporal punishment. Egunlusi (2020) alleges that some learners with unruly behaviour started increasing because more and more became aware of the banning of corporal punishment. In addition, Egunlusi (2020) mentions that most teachers find it very challenging to identify and apply disciplinary methods that are user-friendly, effective and, at the same time, learner-rights conscious. Based on this, the researchers recall Gregory et al. (2021) research, which suggests the school management team and teachers as critical agents to the successful implementation of disciplinary policies. This article thus accentuates different disciplinary problems and explores the perceptions of teachers and parents on learner discipline and the insights female teachers can utilise for managing learner discipline.

Literature review

Discipline as a fundamental principle in schools. Discipline is one of the key pillars of a successful school, supporting and enhancing the entire teaching and learning process. The reviewed literature highlights discipline as an essential principle that fosters order, fairness, protection of learners’ rights, a mechanism for regulating both learners and educators, and a tool for social congruence and safety. Each principle is discussed in the paragraphs below, with distinctions made between international and South African perspectives on disciplinary approaches. The primary objective of discipline is to establish order within the school environment, ensuring that both students and staff can function effectively.

Salta et al. (2022) assert that every educational environment requires a foundational level of order for effective learning to occur. This perspective aligns with Kropáč et al. (2023), who argue that discipline and order are inseparable components of a productive educational system. Lynnette et al. (2021) echo this by highlighting the importance of discipline in maintaining a conducive learning environment, noting that when learners respect classroom order, they create a fair and accessible space for all to learn. Discipline is also closely linked to the protection of learners’ rights and the enforcement of fair conduct within schools. According to Emmer and Gerwels (2013) and Masekela et al. (2024), international studies have observed that discipline systems grounded in legally sanctioned policies can protect learners from wrongful actions. The Constitution (Act 108 of 1996) affirms the right to education for every child, placing responsibility on schools to instil a neutral, understandable, and inclusive code of conduct. Ganaway-Pasley (2022) emphasises that the code of conduct, developed with input from school management and other stakeholders, is essential for a fair and unbiased school environment, a point of relevance to the South African educational landscape.

Unlike punitive approaches, effective discipline is inherently educational, aiming to instil positive values rather than merely penalise negative behaviour. Internationally, Tunick (2023) suggests that discipline guides students towards responsible citizenship by teaching them what is right, rather than simply avoiding what is wrong. Wang (2023) also stresses the role of teachers as societal representatives who model socially acceptable behaviours, underscoring that self-discipline is vital for peaceful societies. This perspective is particularly pertinent, as it aligns with values like Ubuntu – an African philosophy that emphasises collective wellbeing and positive social behaviour. Training for South African teachers on disciplinary methods that align with these values is seen as crucial in fostering safe and positive school environments, as highlighted by Dutil (2020), who observes that schools with balanced discipline practices generally experience safer learning spaces.

Prospects on corporal punishment

Internationally, scholars like Kay and Butler (2023) and Habtes (2024) have argued that certain religious or culturally conservative environments may be more inclined towards corporal punishment. These authors note that some Christian groups, for example, view physical discipline as a means of moral correction. In contrast, South African perspectives are increasingly informed by ubuntu principles, as described in Sayyed Ali Samadi's book, title, parenting: challenges of child rearing in a changing society. Samadi (2021) argues that children can develop good morals without experiencing physical punishment, underscoring the potential for non-violent disciplinary practices that are consistent with South African values and legal prohibitions on corporal punishment in schools. This local context highlights the importance of cultural sensitivity in disciplinary practices and supports the use of restorative and non-punitive measures that align with both national values and constitutional rights.

Ethnical prospect

South Africa, with its rich cultural diversity, presents unique perspectives on corporal punishment that influence public opinion and disciplinary practices. Different cultural values in the country shape beliefs about child-rearing and discipline, especially corporal punishment. Gamer (2011) observes that many South African cultural groups traditionally consider corporal punishment as an effective method for instilling respect and proper conduct in children. In Bangladesh, corporal punishment is rooted in her culture and is still used in classrooms and other settings of children's lives despite the campaign against it (Azad and Sunny, 2023). Some parents according to Azad and Sunny believe punishing children and students is an integral part of rectifying their missbehavior.

Contemporary research, such as Mathungeni (2024), indicates that children from families who rely on corporal punishment tend to exhibit aggressive behaviour, engage in bullying, and, in some cases, become involved in gangsterism. This aligns with Aniagolu's (2023) study on rural South African communities, where teachers and parents view corporal punishment as an appropriate disciplinary measure, reflecting deep-rooted cultural norms. The findings of Aniagolu (2023) also echo Renteln's (2010) sentiment that longstanding cultural values are often challenging to abandon, even when questioned by scholars like Potokri (2015), who advocate for questioning and critical reflection on cultural practices.

Moral rights prospects

The South African Constitution's Bill of Rights (Act 108 of 1996) emphasises the government's commitment to safeguarding the rights and well-being of all citizens, including children. In alignment with this commitment, Sethi et al. (2018) argue that abolishing laws supporting corporal punishment is an essential first step toward eliminating violence against children. The South African Schools Act 84 of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 10(1), specifically prohibits corporal punishment, deeming it a violation of children's rights as enshrined in the Bill of Rights. This section states unequivocally that “no person may administer corporal punishment at a school to a learner, reinforcing the legal stance on protecting children from violence.

To uphold these legal standards, the Ministry of Education actively promotes alternative, non-violent disciplinary methods in schools. South African school principals are encouraged to provide teachers with disciplinary approaches that align with the Schools Act and Bill of Rights. In a study conducted in Florida, USA, Leff (2014) suggests that leadership matters, as both accountable and efficient leadership could contribute to addressing school-based violence. School leaders are thus expected to create a climate which enhances students’ achievement and where everyone feels safe. The South African Schools Act further reinforces accountability by criminalising corporal punishment, with Section 10(2) specifying that any person who administers corporal punishment in schools may face criminal charges for assault.

Psychological prospects

The psychological impact of corporal punishment has been extensively studied, with international and South African sources indicating significant negative consequences for learners. Bishop et al. (2022) caution that abrupt discontinuation of corporal punishment without supportive measures may lead to students developing pessimistic attitudes toward authority figures, including teachers and society. Gershoff et al. (2019) add that corporal punishment can lead to emotional distress, negatively impacting learners’ mental health and academic performance. According to Owen (2005), excessive corporal punishment—whether in school or at home—has been associated with maladaptive behaviours in children, including aggression, substance abuse, delinquency, and engagement in adult-related crimes. Owen further suggests that exposure to corporal punishment at an early age can adversely affect cognitive development, leading to lasting psychological impacts.

Disciplinary problems and sources of disciplinary problems in schools

In schools worldwide, teachers face a variety of disciplinary problems, including physical violence, aggression, and disruptions like the use of cellular phones. Left unaddressed, these issues can derail the mission and vision of schools, particularly in South Africa, where the educational system is striving to provide a safe and conducive learning environment (Rossouw, 2003). Effective teaching and learning rely on environments free from disruption, as disturbances not only affect teaching time but also reduce the focus needed to meet curriculum requirements. Disciplinary issues stem from various sources, each deeply influenced by social, familial, and environmental factors, as explored below.

Peer pressure

In South Africa, studies have shown that peer pressure significantly impacts student behaviour. Van der Westhuizen and Gawulayo (2021) explain that certain students, especially those with lower self-esteem, may submit to dominant peers, which sometimes leads to behaviours like gangsterism. As Mbatha (2008) notes, peers play a crucial role in shaping students’ actions both in school and at home. For example, theft among peers can result in students seeking revenge, perpetuating cycles of disruptive behaviour. International research supports these findings, with studies indicating that peer pressure is a universal element in child development. Smith and Liebenberg (2003) contend that children spend substantial time with peers, who influence their values, behaviour, and decision-making.

Societal and family issues

In South Africa, socio-economic factors and parenting styles have notable effects on learner discipline. Reimers and Chung (2019) emphasise the importance of a supportive social environment for children's development, which can reduce behavioural issues in schools. Rossouw (2003) further points out that parents who neglect a consistent and active disciplinary approach may inadvertently contribute to misbehaviour in schools. Additionally, South African studies show that children from violent or chaotic family backgrounds often develop aggressive and defiant behaviours (Van der Westhuizen and Gawulayo, 2021). Internationally, family dynamics also play a role in shaping behaviour. According to Bishop et al. (2022), a lack of consistent discipline in any cultural context can result in disobedience and disruptive behaviour in children. Another international research, Smith and Liebenberg (2003) also suggests that some parents avoid discipline, fearing their children may dislike them, a behaviour observed across different societies.

Teacher influence

South African studies, including those by Coetzer et al. (2010) and Geiger (2017), suggest that teachers who struggle with stress management may inadvertently provoke student misbehaviour. Learners often respond negatively to perceived favouritism or teacher unpreparedness, leading to disturbances (Thomson, 2009). Furthermore, in South Africa, teachers who rely on punishment as a primary form of discipline may instil dependency rather than self-discipline in learners (Jinot and Johannes, 2021). International research highlights similar patterns. These studies indicate that teachers who show a lack of empathy or preparation are often met with resistance from students. According to Cullinan (2007), students become more disruptive in classes where teachers fail to keep them engaged, an issue observed across various education systems.

Poor parental involvement

Research indicates that limited parental involvement can lead to increased disciplinary issues among learners. In South Africa, poor parental engagement in education correlates with both lower academic performance and heightened behavioural problems among students. For instance, Ndamani (2008) argues that parents often shift the responsibility of instilling morals and ethics onto teachers, which affects learners’ attitudes toward authority. Lemmer and Van Wyk (2004) recommend that the South African Department of Education establish collaborative platforms to promote parental involvement, which could improve learner discipline. Naidoo et al. (2015) also emphasise that poor parental engagement is a significant contributor to indiscipline in South African schools. International studies align with the above findings, suggesting that parental involvement directly impacts students’ academic and behavioural outcomes. Pullmann et al. (2022) and Wulandari and Abdullah (2024) highlight that students with limited parental engagement tend to exhibit poor academic performance and discipline issues, as parents’ active role in education positively influences students’ values and commitment (Jinot and Johannes, 2021).

Alternative to corporal punishment

Corporal punishment was outlawed in South African schools in 1996, prompting the need for alternative disciplinary methods. Recognising this shift, the Department of Education issued the “Alternative to Corporal Punishment” manual in 2000, which outlined approaches to positively discipline learners and promote self-discipline, respect, and responsibility. This manual was developed to empower teachers with strategies beyond punishment, fostering a healthy teacher-student relationship based on mutual respect (Department of Education, 2000).

Worldwide perspectives on corporal punishment have also evolved, with various countries seeking alternative approaches that encourage student growth and discipline. Le Mottee (2005), for example, describes punishment as a form of dominance rather than an educational tool, asserting that alternative methods rooted in positive reinforcement and self-regulation are more effective for long-term behavioural change.

Code of conduct

The South African Schools Act (SASA) 84 of 1996, section 8, mandates school governing bodies to create and enforce a code of conduct for learners. This code provides guidelines on appropriate behaviours, fostering an environment where self-discipline and respect are cultivated. Masekoameng (2010) emphasises the importance of a well-crafted code of conduct, as it involves all stakeholders—parents, learners, and staff—in promoting a safe and disciplined school environment. According to SASA, the code of conduct should be accessible and understandable to all learners, encouraging them to respect community values. Internationally, codes of conduct are similarly established to maintain school discipline, but approaches may differ in implementation. Ndamani (2008) notes that rules guiding student behaviour are essential for school functionality, and international codes also reflect principles of equity, inclusivity, and developmentally appropriate language.

Proper classroom management

In South Africa, effective classroom management remains a major challenge, especially in the post-corporal punishment era. Bechuke and Debeila (2012) highlight that teachers often struggle to maintain order, which impacts both teaching and learning. They advocate for proactive measures like setting clear, simple rules and teaching respect, discipline, and the rights of others. Eliseo (2024) suggests that routines such as daily attendance, group discussions, and organized assignment collection can help manage classroom dynamics and instil responsibility among learners. Globally, classroom management is similarly recognised as essential for effective teaching. Techniques like rule-setting, routine establishment, and positive reinforcement are widely applied to minimise disruptions and promote a respectful learning environment (Eliseo, 2024). Effective classroom management practices worldwide emphasize consistency, engagement, and the creation of a structured, supportive environment.

Enhancing self-discipline

Discipline, distinct from punishment, seeks to foster self-regulation and internal moral guidance within learners. In South Africa, self-discipline is viewed as crucial for developing students who can navigate right and wrong independently. This shift in focus—away from punishment and toward fostering self-discipline—has gained traction in local studies. Bishop et al. (2022) emphasise that learners with self-discipline are less reliant on external guidance to correct mistakes, fostering a self-regulating environment conducive to learning.

Research outside South Africa aligns with the sentiments above. For example, Wang (2023) elaborates on the role of discipline in cultivating positive behaviour, highlighting that discipline encourages learners to identify and address their own mistakes without requiring constant oversight. This approach to discipline not only addresses immediate behavioural issues but also equips learners with long-term skills in self-regulation. Furthermore, Wang suggests that students who develop self-discipline positively influence their peers, reducing the need for teacher intervention over time.

Humanistic theoretical framework

The humanistic theoretical framework, which considers the psychological, physical, social, and emotional well-being of individuals, is fundamental to understanding student and teacher behaviour in educational settings. The humanistic framework helps in connecting the ability to learn with the fulfilment of other needs (Gandhi and Mukherji, 2023). According to Nkuna (2017), the experiences of teachers in the classroom are moulded by their physical, social and emotional well-being. The humanistic theoretical framework provides a holistic understanding of teachers’ experiences both in and out of the classroom. Odebode's (2019) research conducted with Nigerian teachers, found that students experiencing psychological, physical, or social challenges are more likely to engage in indiscipline. Although not specific to South Africa, Odebode's study underscores the importance of a supportive environment for fostering discipline across African contexts.

Humanistic framework is rooted in psychology and education, aiming to promote a holistic understanding of individuals. Sollod et al. (2009) describe this framework as a “third force” in psychology, blending the psychodynamic and behavioural perspectives to emphasise human growth and potential, and accountability (Cassar, Oosterheert and Meijer, 2023). The approach centres on individual dignity, morality, and the relational nature of humans, aspects crucial for creating supportive and disciplined educational environments. Pirson (2017) also highlights that the humanistic approach recognises the importance of relational and moral integrity, essential elements for fostering self-discipline and positive behaviour. The work of Ruggeri et al. (2020) contends that human beings are generally good and want to reach their full potential; hence, they seek advancement towards a higher rank of well-being in their lives. This when related to this research applies to all in the school but arguable more to teachers and SMTs. On the other hand, as argued by Wu, Luan and Raihani (2022), punishments and rewards are the root cause of most human deportment. This, when related to this research applies more to learners or students in a school setting. It is thus not surprising that humanistic approach according to Lei (2007) is concerned about the inner world of the learner.

Methodology

In this study, the researchers employed a qualitative research approach to explore female teachers’ perceptions and experiences of learner discipline within primary schools. Purposeful sampling was used to select participants based on their direct involvement in managing learner discipline, allowing the researchers to target individuals capable of providing detailed, and relevant insights aligned with the study's aims. The three primary schools chosen for the study were selected based on their representation of diverse school environments within the province. The residents of the schools’ environment including the sampled participants – parents and teachers are from different tribes, races, religions, and political affiliations.

The sample consisted of nine female participants drawn from these three primary schools in Vuwani, ensuring a gender-specific perspective on learner discipline. All participants were female because the study sought to explore the experiences of women educators, who often play critical roles in learner discipline within primary school settings. This focus was intended to highlight gender-specific insights and challenges that female educators encounter in discipline management. Participants were organized into three distinct categories based on their roles: heads of departments (HODs) as category one, teachers as category two, and parents (school governing body members) as category three. From each school is one HOD, one teacher, and one parent, resulting in a total of nine participants. This categorization allowed the study to capture diverse perspectives on learner discipline from both school staff and parent representatives involved in disciplinary management.

Principals were deliberately excluded from the study to concentrate on frontline experiences with learner discipline, as HODs, teachers, and parents engage more directly with students in day-to-day disciplinary practices. Additionally, student perspectives were not included to maintain an adult-centered view on managing discipline, aiming to explore strategies and experiences from those responsible for enforcing and guiding student behaviour within the school setting.

To collect data, researchers conducted in-depth individual interviews with each participant via Zoom. Using Zoom provided several advantages: it allowed for flexibility in scheduling and accessing, enabling participants to join from settings convenient for them and reducing disruptions to their professional and personal routines. This was especially important for accommodating the schedules of participants actively involved in education and community governance. Conducting interviews via Zoom also minimized logistical challenges, travel expenses, and time constraints associated with visiting the schools, which are dispersed throughout the Vuwani district. Furthermore, Zoom enabled the researchers to create a familiar and comfortable environment for participants, promoting open and authentic sharing of experiences. The platform's audio-recording capabilities ensured accuracy in data collection, facilitating verbatim transcription and enhancing the reliability of subsequent thematic analysis.

The analysis of the obtained data was done by role (of participants) not schools. The choice was informed by the writing of Leedy and Ormrod. According to them, qualitative research which this research is typical, allows the researchers to gain an in-depth understanding of participants to identify common broad patterns among the selected participants which further allows the participants to create their own meanings of social contexts or happenings in the contexts (Leedy and Ormrod, 2015). The social contexts in the research which this article reports on are the three sampled schools. The choice was upheld on account that data were generated from the participants – HODs, teachers and parents who are associated with the sampled schools. In addition, we (researchers) are assertive that the data are perspectives of participants. Hence, analysing the data by role helps to stay away from probes and impressions that participants are speaking for the schools – which is not necessarily the case or part of this article's intention.

Ethical considerations were central to the study, guided by the principle of participant “sovereignty"—a concept that emphasises treating participants with respect and valuing their contributions as essential sources of data. As highlighted by Potokri (2011, 2022), this approach views participants as “kings and queens,” underscoring the importance of respectful engagement. The researchers ensured that participants gave informed consent, participated voluntarily, and that their identities were protected to safeguard their privacy. Institutional permission was also obtained for each participating school, anonymised as Schools A, B, and C to maintain confidentiality.

Findings and discussion

The following findings were derived from the in-depth individual interviews conducted in School A, School B, and School C.

Perceptions and experiences on learner discipline:

Points of view from school A

HODs and teachers from School A shared their perceptions and experiences regarding learner discipline. They highlighted challenges related to the management of discipline following the outlaw of corporal punishment in South Africa. The HOD noted, “Most learners are now disrespecting and no longer recognise teachers.” This sentiment was supported by another remark from the same HOD: “Learner's disrespect teachers because they know teachers can’t punish them.” These perspectives align with research by Maphosa and Shumba (2010), which found that the removal of corporal punishment has left a void in effective disciplinary strategies in South African schools.

Teachers expressed similar frustrations. One teacher mentioned: “Discipline no longer exists because it is difficult to discipline as learners are overprotected by the law.” This, according to Wulandari and Abdullah (2024), highlights the legal and psychological challenges teachers face in maintaining discipline without clear alternative strategies. Another teacher added: “Learners are not behaving well because they are no longer punished, and parents report teachers to authority if they apply corporal punishment on their children.” Similarly, another teacher observed: “Discipline has deteriorated drastically, and learners are no longer obeying teachers.” These frustrations underscore the gap between policy and practice, as many teachers feel unprepared to implement alternative methods effectively, an issue noted by Nkuna (2022).

Parents from School A also expressed concerns about the state of discipline. One parent stated: “Discipline in schools has failed.” Another parent remarked: “Most learners are disruptive and take advantage.” These sentiments suggest a shared perspective across stakeholders that discipline in School A is a significant challenge. Wulandari and Abdullah (2024) emphasize the critical role parents play in shaping learner behaviour, highlighting the need for collaborative efforts to establish discipline frameworks that align with both legal mandates and humanistic principles, fostering mutual respect and accountability.

Points of view from school B

HODs and teachers from School B described challenges in maintaining discipline. The HOD mentioned: “It is now difficult to discipline as learners are disrespectful.” A teacher noted: “Learners are unruly and show a lack of interest in their studies, which leads to poor results in schools.” These concerns reflect findings by Straus and Donnelly (2017), who argued that the abolition of corporal punishment negatively impacts on the performance of both students and teachers and has not been matched with sufficient training in alternative disciplinary methods. Teachers’ reliance on outdated methods contrasts sharply with the humanistic theoretical framework, which calls for a shift toward strategies like positive reinforcement and open communication to guide learner behaviour effectively.

Another teacher echoed similar sentiments: “There are no proper disciplinary measures; we tried the methods exposed to us but cannot help.” The frustration reflects the systemic challenges in adapting to new approaches, as noted by Dalgas, Ntoumanis, Elmose-Østerlund and Bredahl (2024), who emphasize the need for capacity-building initiatives in schools.

Teachers also highlighted how learners exploit their legal rights, with one stating: “Discipline is challenging as learners bank on their rights.” Another teacher shared: “Since the abolition of corporal punishment, there is too much increase in ill-disciplined learners and there are no means to discipline learners.” These remarks echo Cassar et al. (2023), who observed that while learners’ rights are protected, a lack of structured guidance often leads to misinterpretation of freedom as a lack of accountability.

Parents from School B noted similar concerns. One parent remarked: “Discipline is a challenge in schools. Teachers experience trauma, and learners are aware of the law.” Another stated: “Without corporal punishment, there is only more mischief in schools.” A parent highlighted safety concerns for teachers: “Teachers are always threatened in classes, and it is no longer safe for them as learners bring weapons to school.” These perspectives illustrate a systemic challenge. The humanistic approach requires creating a safe and inclusive learning environment. However, the safety concerns raised by parents and teachers indicate a pressing need for school policies that address violence and provide clear guidelines for conflict resolution, as supported by Dalgas, Ntoumanis, Elmose-Østerlund and Bredahl (2024).

Points of view from school C

In School C, HODs, teachers, and parents shared their experiences of learner discipline. The HOD observed: “There is no more discipline in most schools as teachers are not aware of which disciplinary strategies to use.” This remark aligns with Maphosa and Shumba (2010), who advocates for equipping educators with non-violent conflict resolution techniques.

Teachers expressed frustration about learners’ behaviour. One teacher stated: “Learners are out of control; they don’t take their schoolwork seriously.” According to Wulandari and Abdullah (2024), such attitudes reflect a deeper issue of learners misinterpreting their freedoms, which highlights the importance of instilling a balance between rights and responsibilities. Another teacher mentioned: “Discipline is still a problem as learners are misinterpreting their freedom.” These remarks suggest a perception that learners exploit the rights afforded to them by law.

The finding above aligns with Cassar et al. (2023), who highlight that while learners’ rights are protected, the lack of structured guidance often leads to misinterpretation of freedom which inversely impact on accountability. The humanistic framework emphasizes balancing rights with responsibilities, promoting autonomy while maintaining structure and discipline in schools.

Parents also voiced their concerns. One parent said: “There is no respect in schools, and learners are out of control.” Another noted: “Learners do not know the difference between them and teachers.” A parent highlighted occasional abuse by teachers: “Some teachers bring their home problems to school and beat learners for small mistakes.” While the abolition of corporal punishment aligns with humanistic values, such incidents of abuse indicate a failure to internalize these principles. The need for professional development and psychological support for teachers is evident, as noted by Maphosa and Shumba (2010), who advocates for equipping educators with non-violent conflict resolution techniques.

Disciplinary measures used at schools

Two disciplinary measures, namely proactive disciplinary measures and reactive disciplinary measures are mentioned in this study.

Points of views from school A

Proactive disciplinary measures

Drawing on Jinot and Johanne'’s (2021) work, the need for reactive discipline can be reduced by a proper proactive discipline plan. Their suggestions indicate that proactive discipline makes learners aware of the consequences of their wrongdoings. The HOD from School A emphasized the importance of classroom rules in fostering responsibility among learners, stating: “Teachers should instill discipline in learners by creating class rules and applying the Code of Conduct.” This aligns with the humanistic theory, which advocates for creating structured environments that support human growth, potentials and accountability (Cassar et al., 2023). However, the findings indicate that while the HOD recognized the value of proactive measures, the implementation of these strategies was limited.

Teachers at School A did not mention employing proactive disciplinary measures. Instead, they relied on reactive methods, indicating a missed opportunity to promote intrinsic motivation and self-discipline. Jinot and Johannes (2021) emphasize that proactive measures help develop learners’ responsibility and self-discipline, reducing the need for punitive approaches. The teacher from School A admitted: “I call parents or take learners to the school principal,” reflecting a reliance on external interventions rather than fostering internal accountability among learners.

Reactive disciplinary measures

The HOD from School A relied on reactive disciplinary measures such as detention, manual work, and suspension. They stated: “I normally send out learners to miss a lesson, or they sometimes sit on the floor as a way of punishing them.” These methods align with Grogan-Kaylor et al.'s (2018) observation that punitive measures are often mistaken for discipline, which can limit their effectiveness. The findings further revealed that parental involvement was limited, reducing the efficacy of these methods.

Teachers at School A employed similar reactive measures, such as suspension, manual work, and detention. One teacher remarked: “I usually suspend learners or give them manual work or make them remain after school.” Another teacher added: “I always use physical exercises as a form of punishment.” Rossouw (2003) asserts that such reactive methods can provoke defiance and contemptuous behavior among learners, which may explain their limited success in fostering lasting behavioral change.

The reliance on reactive methods at School A highlights the need for a paradigm shift toward proactive strategies. Humanistic theory underscores the importance of creating supportive environments that encourage self-discipline and intrinsic motivation. Implementing proactive measures, such as clear rules and positive reinforcement, could address the root causes of indiscipline and reduce reliance on punitive methods.

Points of views from school B

Proactive disciplinary measures

The HODs at School B did not mention the use of proactive disciplinary measures. Instead, they focused on reactive approaches, reflecting a gap in utilizing strategies that encourage self-discipline and responsibility. Jinot and Johannes (2021) emphasize that proactive measures can reduce the reliance on reactive methods, but this was not evident in School B's practices.

Teachers at School B also did not adopt proactive disciplinary methods. Instead, they relied on reactive measures such as detention, extra work, and classroom cleaning. One teacher stated: “I usually keep learners for detention, give them extra work, and make them clean classes.” This reflects a reactive approach that prioritizes punishment over fostering intrinsic motivation, contrary to the principles of humanistic theory, which advocates for empowering learners through positive reinforcement. This view of the researchers resonates with Lei (2007) assertion that humanistic approach emphasizes the importance of the inner world of the learner and places the individual's thought, emotions and feelings at the forefront of all human development.

Reactive disciplinary measures

The HODs at School B disclosed their reliance on reactive measures such as detention, suspension, and involving parents. One HOD remarked: “These methods are not effective, and learners are aware. They are also time-consuming for teachers.” Another HOD highlighted the challenge of parental involvement, stating: “I usually give out letters to call parents, but they do not always respond.” These findings align with Grogan-Kaylor et al.'s (2018) argument that punitive measures often fail without adequate parental support.

Teachers at School B employed similar reactive methods, including suspension, manual work, and physical exercises. One teacher explained: “I use detention and tongue lashing or chase them out of the class.” Another added: “I make learners clean the classrooms or pick up papers.” Rossouw (2003) contends that such measures can cause learners’ indiscipline attitude, which could be a reason for the limited effectiveness in School B.

The findings from School B underscore the systemic challenges in implementing effective discipline. The humanistic approach's emphasis on empathy and respect suggests that integrating proactive strategies, such as collaborative rule-setting and engaging parents, could address these challenges and enhance discipline outcomes.

Points of views from school C

Proactive disciplinary measures

The HOD from School C highlighted the importance of parental involvement and the role of the school-based support team (SBST) in addressing learner discipline. They noted: “Teachers should work with parents and the SBST to instil discipline effectively.” This aligns with Jinot and Johanne'’s (2021) assertion that proactive measures foster self-discipline and accountability. However, the implementation of these strategies appeared limited, as reactive methods were more commonly employed.

Teachers at School C did not report using proactive disciplinary methods. Instead, they relied on reactive approaches, reflecting a missed opportunity to adopt strategies that promote self-discipline and accountability among learners. Humanistic theory emphasizes the importance of nurturing relationships and creating supportive environments, highlighting the potential of proactive measures in fostering positive behavior (Nkuna, 2022).

Reactive disciplinary measures

The HOD from School C reported using reactive measures such as detention, physical exercises, and classroom cleaning. They stated: “I make learners clean the class, have one-on-one discussions, or take them for detention if they transgress.” However, they acknowledged the limited effectiveness of these methods, noting that some learners found certain punishments enjoyable. Wulandari and Abdullah (2024) highlight the importance of parental involvement in enhancing the success of disciplinary measures, which was echoed by the HOD's emphasis on collaboration with parents.

Teachers at School C employed reactive methods, such as suspension, manual work, and detention. One teacher noted: “I usually use emotional intimidation or put them on the floor.” Another mentioned: “I put learners to stand in front or make them do exercises.” These findings concur with Pullmann et al.'s (2022) observation that reliance on reactive methods often reflects an inability to plan for discipline proactively.

The reliance on reactive methods at School C highlights a gap in adopting proactive strategies. The humanistic framework's emphasis on empathy and respect suggests that involving parents and utilizing positive reinforcement could significantly enhance discipline outcomes. Proactive measures, such as clear expectations and collaborative problem-solving, could reduce the reliance on punitive approaches and foster a more supportive learning environment for performance and the management of learners’ discipline.

Insights for female teachers

On account of the findings of this study as detailed in the section above, the researchers contend that learning from the experiences of others particularly those in the same situation or/and profession as the case with school teachers and learner discipline in this study is a powerful and sense-making route for overcoming the challenges confronting professionals in their workplaces. The experiences of teacher managing learner discipline are evidently revealing in this study's reviewed literature and in-depth interview data from sampled participants.

Female teachers dominate in terms of their numbers in South African schools, and they are more challenged with the management of discipline in comparison to their male counterparts. Rather than allow this remain as insurmountable, the researchers report delightfully that female teacher do have the attributes to manage learners discipline at par level with male teachers and even better. This they can do if the school governing bodies function optimally.

The participants in this study, mentioned the need to include learners in discipline workshops which is revealed as one way of getting both learners and teachers abreast with ways of dealing with discipline issues. Accordingly, learners will understand teachers especially female teachers’ confusion and depression associated with discipline issues at schools. This tends to agree with extrapolation of the humanistic theory – the theoretical framework utilised in this study. Concisely, the researchers note in agreement with the theory as indicated by some participants that discipline if properly managed in schools would promote the psychological, physical, social, and emotional well-being of both learners and teachers.

Wang's (2023) work equally agrees with the study's finding on behaviour. The work explicates that discipline is concerned with the administration of positive behaviour, and its primary objective is to instil and inculcate in a learner the capacity and propensity to effectively identify self-wrongs and effectively deal with them without thorough intervention from the other party. So, with the discipline support mechanism within schools and education department well in place, female teachers stand the chance of overcoming learner discipline challenges which often leave a good number of them emotionally distressed.

Revelations from teachers and HODs participants about reactive and proactive discipline is an important insight that female teachers can learn from. Rather than opt for reactive discipline, which is in this study revealed as the commonly used, the proactive discipline should be encouraged for use especially among female teachers because it develops a sense of responsibility and self-discipline in learners and teachers thereby preventing events or situations turn to an indiscipline crisis as Jinot and Johannes (2021) advocate. Deductively, the researchers believe that the caring characteristics and nature of women is an explanation for their often embrace of reactive discipline style. The researchers therefore posit that the cardinal insight for female teachers is enforcement of disciplinary measures without allowing their innate caring nature to suppress enforcement because learners often misrepresent them for weakness. Female teachers should as a matter of fact use their caring nature attributes proactively, in doing so, they would be nipping discipline by the bud and in turn effectively managing learners’ discipline.

Conclusion

This study has revealed that learner disciplinary problems are global, and they are similar in most schools. The factors causing learner disciplinary problems are numerous. These factors could be from the school or/and outside the school, and this would include home and society. It was discovered that home and family background are the principal causes of learners’ disciplinary problems. Learners grow up watching violent programmes on television and social media. They see this in their neighbourhood and think that this is society's way of life and the right path for achieving one's desires. School-related factors, such as insufficient infrastructure and resources, overcrowded classrooms, an overemphasis on learners’ rights, a lack of in-service training programmes to equip educators with different disciplinary approaches, and the misconduct of educators add to learners’ ill-discipline.

Having illuminated in the section above, the insights for female teachers on how they can manage learners’ discipline, this study underscores that different disciplinary methods also referred to as disciplinary approaches can be deployed and applied efficaciously in the absence of corporal punishment by school management team and teachers. The different approaches, evidently in this study, include involving parents in school activities, encouraging parents and teachers to discipline their children and learners with love, and acting as role models for their learners/children. Young people emulate their role models when they grow up. When effectively used, praise and reward can turn around behaviour challenges and improve learners’ attitudes towards learning. Involving stakeholders who have an interest in the education of their children can substantially improve discipline among learners. Importantly, the study underlines for note that the success of management of learner discipline lie greatly in putting in place rules that ensure orderliness in schools. With it, the punishment of learners for what is not wrong but for what some teachers don’t like in some instances could be avoided.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

The author(s) acknowledge and thank the study's participants for their participation.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iDs

Onoriode Collins Potokri

Rudzani Israel Lumadi

Author biographies

Onoriode Collins Potokri is an associate professor in the Department of Educational Management, Policy, and Comparative Education at the University of Free State, South Africa. He is also a visiting scholar at Barry University, Miami, U.S.A. He has presented papers and served as an invited guest speaker at different conferences/seminars. He has supervised the completion of theses of master’s and doctoral students. His research interests include education policy/management, women in education and development, economics of education, and research methodology. He is the author and co-author of several articles, books, book chapters and conference proceedings. He can be contacted at PotokriOC@ufs.ac.za

Rudzani Israel Lumadi is an associate professor in the Department of Educational Leadership and Management, University of South Africa. He has authored and co-authored many articles on education leadership and management. He has supervised many master’s and doctoral research. He can be contacted at email: lumadri@unisa.ac.za

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