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Abstract

The purpose of this conceptual paper is to highlight the impacts of psychological and biological health on the principalship, particularly as it relates to sleep. Job-related stress, heavy workloads, and unpredictable work schedules can impact principals’ mental health, diet, and consumptive behaviors, which can disrupt the much-needed restorative sleep for healthy cognition, physiological functioning, and efficacious leadership. We turn the field's attention towards the importance of quality sleep and how it impacts personal health and occupational performance. We provide a robust interdisciplinary review of literature on precursors and outcomes of poor sleep quality as it pertains to school leaders both personally and professionally. Empirical recommendations for improving sleep quality along with recommendations for preparation programs and the field of educational leadership are discussed.

Keywords

principals sleep stress health sustainable leadership

Introduction

Principals and heads of schools have a tireless job working each day to raise student achievement and create a school community where all students thrive (Day et al., 2016; Grissom et al., 2021). Effective leadership that produces measurable and sustainable results requires a healthy leader able to withstand the many challenging conditions that come with the job over a continued period. This is because public schools are subject to a great deal of uncertainty and because the relationships, processes, and practices that lead to meaningful improvements on a campus take time. Researchers have found that through this work, principals regularly confront a complex reality with a broad array of dilemmas (Cranston et al., 2006; Day et al., 2001; Dimmock, 1999; Gurr and Drysdale, 2012) and with it, elevated levels of job-related stress (Darmody and Smyth, 2016; DeMatthews et al., 2021; Reid, 2022; Westman and Etzion, 1999; Whitaker, 1996). On any given day, for example, a principal's plans can be changed by a new state or district policy, a budget crisis, a disgruntled parent, a natural disaster, a workplace dispute, or a variety of other unpredictable but immediately pressing events. The global pandemic exacerbated these challenges by increasing workload demands (Beauchamp et al., 2021; Fotheringham et al., 2022; Murphy and Devine, 2023) and triggering disruptions in the teacher workforce (Carver-Thomas et al., 2021). Consequently, many principals are experiencing high levels of stress and dissatisfaction that may push them to leave their campuses (Kaufman et al., 2022). These working conditions beg the question, “Are principals really tireless?”

Conventional wisdom within the field suggest that principals are tired, stressed, and do not always take care of themselves, but the field needs to do more than acknowledge such wisdom. The strength and resilience that principals are expected to model over a school year is often in conflict with biological and psychological limitations. Unfortunately, healthy proactive coping skills are not typically part of principal preparation or considered part of effective principal practice. Professional standards in the United States and elsewhere lack self-care and health expectations, unlike other fields and professions of care (e.g., nursing, medical doctors, and counselors). The physical limitations of the principal as well as the need to take care of oneself are often forgotten amid the context of high-stakes accountability that is pervasive in many countries as well as the moral imperative to improve schools for the benefit of all children. Yet, if principals are not attentive to their health, they run the risk of experiencing high levels of job-related stress which in turn can impact their performance, job satisfaction, and commitment to their campus community. In fact, researchers have found that principals can experience elevated levels of acute and chronic stress, which can have an impact on their practice and their retention on a campus (Boyce and Bowers, 2016; Kim and Pendola, 2022; Su-Keene and DeMatthews, 2022).

Sleep is essential for healthy aging, lifestyle, and cognitive functioning (Keene and Duboue, 2018). Sleep is widely accepted as critical for performance in many professions including professional athletes and pilots, but little is known about sleep in educators and specifically in school leaders (Charest and Grandner, 2022; Maki et al., 2022). In both human and animal studies, sleep loss is associated with impaired cognition and impoverished decision making (Harrison and Horne, 2000). Furthermore, there are strong interactions between elevated stress and reduced sleep quality (Martire et al., 2020). Research on nurses show that stress is negatively correlated to sleep quality which is directly correlated with perceptions of health (Lin et al., 2014) and that conditions like COVID-19 exacerbated this relationship compared to that of the general population (Al Maqbali et al., 2021). While these are well-accepted outcomes of sleep loss, the education research community has not sufficiently examined the impact of job-related stress on principals’ health specifically in relation to sleep or potential practices that can build resilience and well-being.

The purpose of this article is to alert the field to the importance of quality sleep. We provide a review of literature across disciplines to describe the process of sleep and the relationship between sleep and health. Next, we describe the connections between principals’ working conditions, sleep, and personal and professional outcomes. We conclude with a set of basic recommendations for principals to promote healthy sleep as well as recommendations for additional research we hope others consider.

Relationship between sleep and health

Sleep is necessary for many fundamental aspects of human functioning including healthy development, cognition, physiological functioning, and lifespan (Keene and Duboue, 2018). Humans cycle through multiple types of sleep throughout the night that include slow wave sleep (SWS) and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. These stages can be distinguished by differences in brain activity and have markedly different impacts on the brain's physiology and function. SWS is associated with deep, restorative sleep defined by slowed physiological processes like heart rate, blood pressure, and metabolic rate. Individuals who have decreased amount of restorative sleep have been shown to be at greater risk for cardiovascular disease (Fung et al., 2011). REM sleep, on the other hand, exhibits similar brain wave activity to individuals in a relaxed awake state and is often associated with dreaming. Together these two states of sleep cycle back and forth throughout the night (Luyster et al., 2012). The time spent in different stages of sleep, as well as the sleeps physiological properties, significantly impact restorative function making both sleep quality as well as duration critical for human health.

Sleep is regulated by internal biological clocks—circadian rhythms—which are primarily regulated by environmental light, function on a 24-hour cycle, and control the timing of sleep. Other physiological regulations including core body temperature, digestion, and hormone production, like melatonin and cortisol, function in parallel with sleep processes. For example, the stress hormone cortisol is highest during the late morning and lowest in the evening. Melatonin, on the other hand, increases during the evening and induces sleep (Luyster et al., 2012). In addition, sleep is governed by homeostatic processes that determine how much sleep is needed and increase sleep on days following deprivation (Borbely and Achermann, 1999). While the average individual sleeps approximately 7 to 8 hours each night, the amount of sleep required varies significantly between individuals at least in part due to genetic differences (Keene and Duboue, 2018). Furthermore, circadian and homeostatic effects of sleep are influenced by multiple environmental variables including life-history traits, stress, diet, alcohol use, and exercise (Irish et al., 2015).

Disruption of internal clocks and sleep from aspects of human living such as non-traditional work shifts, stress, and jetlag can have negative impacts on sleep. Chronic disruptions of sleep regulation can lead to poor health consequences and even death (Davidson et al., 2006). For example, shortened sleep duration, lengthy sleep duration, and shift work outside of regular hours is associated with greater risk of death from heart disease and stroke (Arble et al., 2015; Cappuccio et al., 2011; Haupt et al., 2008). Epidemiological studies show that poor sleep is a risk factor for obesity and type 2 diabetes (Gottlieb et al., 2005; Reutrakul and Van Cauter, 2018). Sleep loss in particular increases the risk of developing certain types of cancers including breast, colorectal, and prostate cancer (Kakizaki et al., 2008; Thompson et al., 2011). Sleep disruptions have also been implicated in psychiatric and neurological diseases including major depressive disorder, alcoholism, anxiety disorder, Alzheimer's disease, and Huntington's disease (Wulff et al., 2010). Given the strong evidence for the relationship between sleep quality and health, sleep has often been considered a target area for treatment of ailments.

Relationship between principal work conditions and sleep

The impacts of job-related stress experienced by principals have been well documented for the past four decades (Carr, 1994; Gmelch and Swent, 1984). In addition to the stressors noted earlier, principals report working nearly 60 hours per week on school-related activities (Taie and Lewis, 2022). Heavy workloads combined with high stress can impact other factors or antecedents that influence sleep such as mental health, diet, and exercise. Researchers have found that poor mental health, especially anxiety and depression, and diets consisting of highly processed foods and sugar-sweetened beverages result in poorer sleep quality (Becker et al., 2018; Godos et al., 2021). Conversely, exercise especially among individuals with mental health illness or sleep disorders has positive sleep-enhancement effects (Driver and Taylor, 2000). While these factors seem apparent, principals who tend to have complex, demanding, unpredictable, and often sacrificial positions do not necessarily have the capacity to maintain healthy minds and habits. A study of nearly three hundred school leaders found that principals were regularly skipping meals and eating foods prepared away from home (Ray et al., 2020). Less than half of the principals exercised on a regular basis, and less than 20% practiced proactive stress management strategies (Ray et al., 2020). Few studies in educational leadership have explored sleep, but those that have found that principals self-report sleep deprivation at a greater rate than the general population (Ray et al., 2020).

Understanding how sleep and workplace performance interact is a challenge. Nevertheless, there is growing evidence that high-stress jobs are associated with reduced sleep quality, which in turn has negative impacts on performance. On a professional level, studies in other fields have shown that poor sleep impacts individuals’ capacity to handle stressful situations, be in a good mood, emotionally regulate, and be efficacious in their jobs (Massar et al., 2017; Schmitt et al., 2017). Occupational health researchers have also found that poor sleep quality impacts general workplace functioning including increased absenteeism and accidents, and decreased productivity, job satisfaction, and ability to advance in a career (Kucharczyk et al., 2012). For principals, these emotion-regulating elements are essential for building relationships, creating positive school climates, and making leadership decisions (Wang, 2021). There exists a small but interesting body of literature around sleep and leader–employee relationships which found that a lack of sleep negatively influenced perceptions of relationship quality for both leaders and followers across industries (Guarana and Barnes, 2017). Leaders’ lack of sleep in particular generated perceptions of hostility in followers that were maintained for the duration of the relationship. In all, the literature suggests that stress and workload can create a cascade of effects that negatively impact sleep, and in return, decrease the capacity for principals to be effective in their work. This, paired with cognitive and biological health consequences creates a positive-feedback cycle that principals need to be cognizant of and intentionally disrupt for sustainable leadership. In the following section, we provide recommendations for improving sleep quality.

Improving principal sleep

Stress experienced in the principalship when unmanaged can impact other factors such as diet, exercise, and consumptive behaviors that influence sleep processes. Poor sleep especially over time can exacerbate issues in personal health and effective leadership practice. Here, we provide a list of empirically based recommendations for principals to improve sleep quality that focus on various pressure points in the relationship between stress and sleep. Specifically, we provide recommendations that focus on the mitigation of stress and proactive sleep-enhancing behaviors.

Managing stress through coping and positive psychology strategies

Acute and chronic stress results in biological responses that impact sleep. Stress increases mental and physiological arousal like worrying, heart rate, blood pressure, and anxiety which can delay sleep onset, increase tendency to wake, and result in less restorative sleep (Kim and Dimsdale, 2007). In one study, coping with stress by practicing mindfulness strategies decreased morning cortisol levels and improved sleep quality (Brand et al., 2012). Therefore, we recommend principals practice stress management through coping mechanisms such as mediation, mindfulness, and deep breathing especially prior to bedtime to minimize stress and its impact on sleep quality. Studies have also found a strong relationship between positive affect, well-being, and sleep quality independent of health problems and socioeconomic background (Steptoe et al., 2008). Individuals who score high in gratitude had more positive pre-sleep cognitions which predicted better sleep quality and duration (Wood et al., 2009). In a randomized controlled individuals who participated in a 2-week gratitude intervention showed improvements in well-being, lowered blood pressure, and improved sleep quality (Jackowska et al., 2016). We recommend principals attend to the joy in their lives through positive journaling, gratitude checks, counting kind acts, and savoring positive experiences especially before sleep onset (Su-Keene and DeMatthews, 2022). Just as stress is a subjective experience, managing stress needs to be tailored so we encourage principals to explore and determine strategies that work best for them within their contexts.

Sleep-enhancing behaviors

Sleep hygiene has often been promoted through public health education and campaigns to support healthy sleep in the general population (Irish et al., 2015). For example, the Center for Disease Control in the United States provides a list of behaviors to improve sleep which include avoiding large meals before bed, getting exercise, and being consistent with bedtime routines. While systemic research on sleep hygiene is limited, there exists causal links between consumptive behaviors, stress, exercise, and environmental conditions on sleep. For example, large amounts (∼400 mg) of caffeine even 6 hours before bedtime significantly disrupts sleep although variations exist given individual caffeine tolerance and metabolism (Drake et al., 2013). Nicotine increases awakenings and decreases REM sleep with some evidence of impact from second-hand smoke (Jaehne et al., 2009; Sabanayagam and Shankar, 2011). Alcohol intake, even occasional, close to bedtime can increase sleepiness, but as it metabolizes, individuals are more prone to awakenings and light sleep (Stein and Friedmann, 2006). Exercise, both acute or regimented, have positive impacts on sleep especially 4 to 8 hours before bedtime although exercise within 4 hours of sleep has neutral if not slightly positive effects (Youngstedt et al., 1997). We recommend that principals enact healthy proactive behaviors and environments to support quality sleep and health. Principals who engage in exercise should recognize the benefits to both stress mitigation and proactive sleep-enhancement. We recommend that principals practice healthy, consistent eating habits and reduce caffeine and alcohol consumption especially towards the evening. Principal can also create comfortable, dark, and relaxing environments as part of sleep hygiene routine to promote sleep onset.

Managing the use of technology

Blue light is a high energy, short wavelength light that naturally occurs in sunlight; but exposure to artificial blue light has increased with the use of cellphones, computers, tablets, TVs, etc. Research examining the impacts of blue light on sleep have shown that exposure disrupts homeostatic regulation of sleep by reducing the ratio of deep, restorative sleep in the non-REM sleep state (Chellappa et al., 2013). Participants who were exposed to blue light for an hour before bed had reduced restorative sleep (Ishizawa et al., 2021). Interventions that reduced blue light in the evenings found that individuals experienced earlier onset of melatonin production which quickened sleep onset (Zerbini et al., 2020). Furthermore, reducing blue light exposure improved individuals’ perception of sleep quality and engagement and performance at work (Guarana et al., 2021). Reducing blue light exposure is essential for principals since their work often spills beyond traditional work schedules. Whether addressing school-related issues through email or unwinding from a stressful day, we encourage principals to practice technology management especially in the hours leading up to sleep. Principals can create boundaries between work and home life by limiting technology-use in the evening. When using technology, principals can do so in well-lit areas so that blue light is not dominantly absorbed. Studies have also shown that blue light blocking lenses and glasses reduce negative impacts on sleep and this may be an additional protective option (Zerbini et al., 2020). We recognize that it is important for principals to stay connected and responsive, but principals also need to engage in proactive behaviors to promote the deep, restorative sleep that is essential for sustainable leadership.

Conclusion

Principals are not tireless, and they deserve preparation through in-service training that allows them to pursue a healthy lifestyle. The overall health of principals is critical for school improvement, and the educational leadership research community can do more to investigate the topic and improve preparation programs. Additional research is needed to explore principal well-being that takes full advantage of knowledge across disciplines, but also collaborations amongst faculty across departments. To date, studies on principal stress and well-being lack an empirical foundation in the health sciences. While we do not recommend education leadership scholars become health science experts, we do believe interdisciplinary partnerships with researchers in the health sciences is necessary. In collaboration with experts in psychology, biology, counseling, and public health, additional research can assess principals’ stress over the course of a year, track healthy and unhealthy behaviors, and test potential interventions to improve principals’ health and the translation of those improvements into their work. Collaborative and innovative research at the intersection of educational leadership and health sciences can be leveraged to improve working conditions, create policy changes, and improve the preparation of future leaders. We also believe that additional research is needed within the teacher education field, as virtually every principal started off as a teacher and socialized into such work culture within public schools. Given that work-stress is often induced by systemic issues in education, research across educational sub-fields is necessary to disrupt educational work cultures. Workplace productivity is often synonymous with the amount of time engaged in hard work; yet sustainable productivity requires reconceptualizing work to include healthy eating habits, quality sleep, exercise, and time off. If teachers are not trained to be healthy proactively, it is unlikely that principals who are veteran teachers will engage in healthy practices.

Within leadership preparation programs, faculty need to educate themselves on healthy life strategies so that they can infuse these bodies of knowledge within coursework, clinical experiences, and other program related learning opportunities. This may require faculty to connect with researchers in health science programs within their universities including public health, psychology, and medical school faculty, if one is available on campus. Building capacity in this way can enable faculty to better support students in programs and provide them with training and knowledge to begin their leadership careers with coping skills around stress and health promoting habits. For doctoral programs and superintendent certification programs, course content on connections between stress and occupational health can also inform district policies and practices, including how principal supervising and coaching is conducted. In addition, for leadership development programs that partner closely with state education agencies or local education agencies, there is immense opportunity to partner and develop creative strategies to support principals’ overall health and sustainable leadership.

We recognize principals may be lacking quality sleep and proposing a set of interventions will not alleviate many stress-inducing aspects of the position. We also acknowledge that our work and recommendations are in the early stages of development and can only offer limited insights. However, we are calling upon the educational leadership research community to take this issue seriously given the evidence across multiple disciplines, and we are optimistic that greater attention and interdisciplinary research in this area can yield positive results for practitioners. The field has a tremendous opportunity to focus energy and attention on these important research areas, and we are excited about how such work can help reshape the way we professionally prepare our leaders for the challenging jobs ahead.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article

ORCID iD

Eleanor J. Su-Keene

Author biographies

Eleanor J. Su-Keene is an assistant professor in the Department of Teaching, Learning, and Culture at Texas A&M University. Her training in the biological sciences and educational leadership along with experiences as a secondary teacher informs much of her work. As an interdisciplinary researcher, she leverages the health sciences to explore critical issues in education such as equitable school improvement, self-efficacy, and retention.

David E. DeMatthews is a professor of Educational Leadership and Policy at the University of Texas at Austin. He is a former educator and school administrator. His research examines social justice leadership, principal burnout, and turnover and retention with a focus on urban and rural schools serving low-income students of color.

Alex C. Keene is a professor and department head of Biology at Texas A&M University. He is neuroscience geneticist and his research focuses on the genetics and evolution of sleep in the basic sciences to inform translational research. Specifically, he is interested in the relationship between metabolism and sleep and how this relationship drives the evolution of sleep in genetically diverse organisms.

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