Studying how attitudes develop in the transition from late adolescence to emerging adulthood offers unique insights into future generations’ perceptions of society and of others. However, findings on ethnic prejudice during this life period are mixed. The current research aims to examine the development of affective and cognitive ethnic prejudice, adopting a person-centered approach. Furthermore, it examines the associations between educational identity processes and prejudice. A sample of 297 Italian adolescents (Mage = 17.48, SDage = 0.79, 37.8% males) participated in a five-wave longitudinal study. At the mean level, cognitive prejudice decreased slightly over time, while affective prejudice remained stable. Additionally, rank-order stability coefficients were high (r ≥ .526). Moreover, for each dimension of prejudice (i.e., cognitive and affective) taken separately, three groups of participants were identified based on their high, moderate, or low scores, respectively. Finally, higher levels of educational identity in-depth exploration at baseline significantly increased the chances of adolescents falling into the low rather than the moderate group for both cognitive and affective prejudice. Conversely, it significantly reduced the chances of being in the high compared to the moderate group for affective prejudice. This study highlights the importance of considering multiple components of prejudice and their reciprocal associations with identity processes to identify at-risk segments of the adolescent and emerging adult populations.
AlbarelloF.CrispR.RubiniM. (2018a). Promoting beliefs in the inalienability of human rights by attributing uniquely human emotions through multiple categorization. The Journal of Social Psychology, 158(3), 309–321. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2017.1346581
4.
AlbarelloF.CrocettiE.RubiniM. (2018b). I and Us: A longitudinal study on the interplay of personal and social identity in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 47(4), 689–702. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-017-0791-4
5.
AlbarelloF.CrocettiE.RubiniM. (2020). Prejudice and inclusiveness in adolescence: The role of social dominance orientation and multiple categorization. Child Development, 91(4), 1183–1202. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13295
6.
AlbarelloF.CrocettiE.RubiniM. (2021). Developing identification with humanity and social well-being through social identification with peer groups in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 50(6), 1157–1172. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-020-01214-0
7.
AlbarelloF.ForoniF.HewstoneM.RubiniM. (2019). “They are all alike”: When negative minority outgroups are generalized onto superordinate inclusive outgroups. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 73, 59–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2019.08.003
8.
AlbarelloF.RubiniM. (2008). Relazioni intergruppi e fenomeni di deumanizzazione [Intergroup relations and dehumanization phenomena]. Psicologia Sociale, 3(1), 67–94. https://doi.org/10.1482/2760
9.
AlbarelloF.RubiniM. (2011). Outgroup projection: Il caso degli stereotipi negativi attribuiti a Rom e Rumeni [Outgroup projection: The case of negative stereotypes against Romani and Romanian people]. Psicologia Sociale, 6(3), 353–363. https://doi.org/10.1482/35788
10.
AlbarelloF.RubiniM. (2012). Reducing dehumanisation outcomes towards Blacks: The role of multiple categorisation and of human identity. European Journal of Social Psychology, 42(7), 875–882. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.1902
11.
AllportG. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice (xviii, p. 537). Addison-Wesley.
12.
AmodioD. M. (2014). The neuroscience of prejudice and stereotyping. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 15(10), 670–682. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3800
13.
ArnettJ. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55(5), 469–480. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.5.469
BagciS. C.RutlandA. (2019). Ethnic majority and minority youth in multicultural societies. In TitzmannP. F.JugertP. (Eds.), Youth in superdiverse societies: Growing up with globalization, diversity, and acculturation (1st ed., pp. 177–195). Routledge.
16.
BeelmannA.LutterbachS. (2021). Developmental prevention of prejudice: Conceptual issues, evidence-based designing, and outcome results. Review of General Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1177/10892680211056314
17.
BennerA. D.CrosnoeR.EcclesJ. S. (2015). Schools, peers, and prejudice in adolescence. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 25(1), 173–188. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12106
18.
BergmanL. R.El-KhouriB. M. (2003). A person-oriented approach: Methods for today and methods for tomorrow. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 101, 25–38. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/cd.80
19.
BergmanL. R.MagnussonD.KhouriB. M. E. (2003). Studying individual development in an interindividual context: A person-oriented approach. Psychology Press.
20.
BerzonskyM. D. (2011). A social-cognitive perspective on identity construction. In SchwartzS. J.LuyckxK.VignolesV. L. (Eds.), Handbook of identity theory and research. Springer.
21.
BiglerR. S.LibenL. S. (2007). Developmental intergroup theory: Explaining and reducing children’s social stereotyping and prejudice. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16(3), 162–166. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00496.x
22.
BobbaB.CrocettiE. (2022). “I feel you!”: The role of empathic competences in reducing ethnic prejudice among adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 51(10), 1970–1982. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-022-01650-0
23.
BollenK. A. (1989). A new incremental fit index for general structural equation models. Sociological Methods & Research, 17(3), 303–316. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124189017003004
24.
BorghuisJ.DenissenJ. J.OberskiD.SijtsmaK.MeeusW. H.BranjeS.KootH. M.BleidornW. (2017). Big Five personality stability, change, and codevelopment across adolescence and early adulthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 113(4), 641–657. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000138
25.
BornsteinM. H.PutnickD. L.EspositoG. (2017). Continuity and stability in development. Child Development Perspectives, 11(2), 113–119. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12221
26.
BrandtM. J.ChambersJ. R.CrawfordJ. T.WetherellG.ReynaC. (2015). Bounded openness: The effect of openness to experience on intolerance is moderated by target group conventionality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109(3), 549–568. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000055
27.
BrattC.SidaniusJ.Sheehy-SkeffingtonJ. (2016). Shaping the development of prejudice: Latent growth modeling of the influence of social dominance orientation on outgroup affect in youth. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 42(12), 1617–1634. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167216666267
BrownR. (2011). Prejudice: Its social psychology. John Wiley & Sons.
30.
ByrneB. M. (2012). Structural equation modeling with Mplus: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. Routledge.
31.
CarloG. (2014). The development and correlates of prosocial moral behaviors. In KillenM.SmetanaJ. G. (Eds.), Handbook of moral development (2nd ed.). Psychology Press.
32.
CarloG.Padilla-WalkerL.NielsonM. (2015). Longitudinal bidirectional relations between adolescents’ sympathy and prosocial behavior. Developmental Psychology, 51(12), 1771–1777. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000056
33.
ChenF. F. (2007). Sensitivity of goodness of fit indexes to lack of measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 14(3), 464–504. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705510701301834
34.
ChenF. F.CurranP. J.BollenK. A.KirbyJ.PaxtonP. (2008). An empirical evaluation of the use of fixed cutoff points in RMSEA test statistic in structural equation models. Sociological Methods & Research, 36(4), 462–494. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124108314720
35.
CrispR. J.HewstoneM.RubinM. (2001). Does multiple categorization reduce intergroup bias?Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27(1), 76–89. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167201271007
36.
CrocettiE. (2017). Identity formation in adolescence: The dynamic of forming and consolidating identity commitments. Child Development Perspectives, 11(2), 145–150. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12226
37.
CrocettiE.AlbarelloF.PratiF.RubiniM. (2021). Development of prejudice against immigrants and ethnic minorities in adolescence: A systematic review with meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Developmental Review, 60, 100959. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2021.100959
38.
CrocettiE.AvanziL.HawkS. T.FraccaroliF.MeeusW. (2014a). Personal and social facets of job identity: A person-centered approach. Journal of Business and Psychology, 29(2), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-013-9313-x
39.
CrocettiE.ErentaitėR.ŽukauskienėR. (2014b). Identity styles, positive youth development, and civic engagement in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43(11), 1818–1828. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-014-0100-4
40.
CrocettiE.BranjeS.RubiniM.KootH. M.MeeusW. (2017). Identity processes and parent–child and sibling relationships in adolescence: A five-wave multi-informant longitudinal study. Child Development, 88(1), 210–228. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12547
CrocettiE.MeeusW. (2015). The identity statuses: Strengths of a person-centered approach. In McLeanK. C.SyedM. (Eds.), The oxford handbook of identity development (pp. 97–114). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199936564.013.016
43.
CrocettiE.MoscatelliS.KaniušonytėG.MeeusW.ŽukauskienėR.RubiniM. (2019). Developing morality, competence, and sociability in adolescence: A longitudinal study of gender differences. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 48(5), 1009–1021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-019-00996-2
CrocettiE.RubiniM.BerzonskyM. D.MeeusW. (2009). Brief report: The identity style inventory – validation in Italian adolescents and college students. Journal of Adolescence, 32(2), 425–433. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2008.04.002
46.
CrocettiE.RubiniM.BranjeS.KootH. M.MeeusW. (2016). Self-concept clarity in adolescents and parents: A six-wave longitudinal and multi-informant study on development and intergenerational transmission. Journal of Personality, 84(5), 580–593. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12181
47.
CrocettiE.RubiniM.MeeusW. (2008). Capturing the dynamics of identity formation in various ethnic groups: Development and validation of a three-dimensional model. Journal of Adolescence, 31(2), 207–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2007.09.002
48.
CrocettiE.SchwartzS. J.FermaniA.MeeusW. (2010). The Utrecht-Management of Identity Commitments Scale (U-MICS): Italian validation and cross-national comparisons. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 26(3), 169–183. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000024
49.
CrocettiE.SicaL. S.SchwartzS. J.SerafiniT.MeeusW. (2013). Identity styles, dimensions, statuses, and functions: Making connections among identity conceptualizations. European Review of Applied Psychology, 63(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erap.2012.09.001
50.
CuddyA. J.FiskeS. T.GlickP. (2007). The BIAS map: Behaviors from intergroup affect and stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(4), 631. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.4.631
51.
DixonJ. (2017). ‘Thinking ill of others without sufficient warrant?’ Transcending the accuracy-inaccuracy dualism in prejudice and stereotyping research. British Journal of Social Psychology, 56(1), 4–27. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12181
52.
DozoN. (2015). Gender differences in prejudice: A biological and social psychological analysis. [PhD Thesis, The University of Queensland]. https://doi.org/10.14264/uql.2015.777
53.
EcclesJ. S. (2004). Schools, academic motivation, and stage-environment fit. In LernerR. M.SteinbergL. (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
54.
EcksteinK.NoackP.GniewoszB. (2012). Attitudes toward political engagement and willingness to participate in politics: Trajectories throughout adolescence. Journal of Adolescence, 35(3), 485–495. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.07.002
55.
ErentaitėR.VosylisR.CrocettiE. (2019). Longitudinal associations of identity processing styles with prodiversity and proequality values in adolescence. Child Development, 90(5), 1490–1502. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13291
FiskeS. T. (1998). Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. In The handbook of social psychology (Vol. 2(4), pp. 357–411). McGraw-Hill.
58.
FiskeS. T.CuddyA. J. C.GlickP.XuJ. (2002). A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(6), 878–902. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.878
59.
FlanaganC. A.StoutM. (2010). Developmental patterns of social trust between early and late adolescence: Age and school climate effects. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 20(3), 748–773. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00658.x
60.
FoelsR.ReidL. D. (2010). Gender differences in social dominance orientation: The role of cognitive complexity. Sex Roles, 62(9), 684–692. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9775-5
61.
GattinoS.MigliettaA.TestaS. (2011). The Akrami, Ekehammar, and Araya’s Classical and Modern racial prejudice scale in the Italian context. TPM - Testing, Psychometrics, Methodology in Applied Psychology, 18(1), 31–47.
HaddockG.ZannaM. P.EssesV. M. (1993). Assessing the structure of prejudicial attitudes: The case of attitudes toward homosexuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65(6), 1105–1118. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.65.6.1105
64.
HamiltonJ.GagneP. E.HancockG. R. (2003). The effect of sample size on Latent Growth Models. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago.
65.
HatanoK.SugimuraK.CrocettiE. (2016). Looking at the dark and bright sides of identity formation: New insights from adolescents and emerging adults in Japan. Journal of Adolescence, 47(1), 156–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.09.008
66.
HoogheM.MeeusenC.QuintelierE. (2013). The impact of education and intergroup friendship on the development of ethnocentrism. A Latent Growth Curve Model analysis of a five-year panel study among Belgian late adolescents. European Sociological Review, 29(6), 1109–1121. https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcs086
67.
HoogheM.WilkenfeldB. (2008). The stability of political attitudes and behaviors across adolescence and early adulthood: A comparison of survey data on adolescents and young adults in eight countries. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37(2), 155–167. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-007-9199-x
68.
JanmaatJ. G.KeatingA. (2019). Are today’s youth more tolerant? Trends in tolerance among young people in Britain. Ethnicities, 19(1), 44–65. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468796817723682
69.
JungT.WickramaK. A. S. (2008). An introduction to latent class growth analysis and growth mixture modeling. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2(1), 302–317. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00054.x
70.
KellowayE. K. (2015). Using Mplus for structural equation modeling: A researcher’s guide (2nd ed.). SAGE.
71.
KillenM.SmetanaJ. G. (2014). Handbook of moral development (2nd ed.). Psychology Press.
72.
KlimstraT. A.HaleW. W.IIIRaaijmakersQ. A.BranjeS. J.MeeusW. H. (2009). Maturation of personality in adolescence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(4), 898–912. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014746
73.
KlimstraT. A.HaleW. W.IIIRaaijmakersQ. A.BranjeS. J.MeeusW. H. (2010). Identity formation in adolescence: Change or stability?Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39(2), 150–162. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-009-9401-4
74.
KuhnD. (2009). Adolescent thinking. In Handbook of adolescent psychology: Individual bases of adolescent development (Vol. 1, 3rd ed, pp. 152–186). John Wiley & Sons Inc. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470479193.adlpsy001007
75.
LoY.MendellN. R.RubinD. B. (2001). Testing the number of components in a normal mixture. Biometrika, 88(3), 767–778. https://doi.org/10.1093/biomet/88.3.767
76.
MeeusJ.DuriezB.VanbeselaereN.BoenF. (2010). The role of national identity representation in the relation between in-group identification and out-group derogation: Ethnic versus civic representation. British Journal of Social Psychology, 49(2), 305–320. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466609X451455
77.
MeeusW. (2011). The study of adolescents identity formation 2000-2010: A review of longitudinal research. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21(1), 75–94. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00716.x
MeeusenC.de VroomeT.HoogheM. (2013). How does education have an impact on ethnocentrism? A structural equation analysis of cognitive, occupational status and network mechanisms. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 37(5), 507–522. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2013.07.002
80.
MiklikowskaM. (2016). Like parent, like child? Development of prejudice and tolerance towards immigrants. British Journal of Psychology, 107(1), 95–116. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12124
81.
MiklikowskaM. (2017). Development of anti-immigrant attitudes in adolescence: The role of parents, peers, intergroup friendships, and empathy. British Journal of Psychology, 108(3), 626–648. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12236
82.
Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione. (2019). Gli alunni con cittadinanza non italiana A.S. 2017/2018[Students with non-Italian citizenship in 2017/2018 school year].
MroczekD. K. (2007). The analysis of longitudinal data in personality research. In Handbook of research methods in personality psychology (pp. 543–556). The Guilford Press.
MuthénL. K.MuthénB. O. (2002). How to use a Monte Carlo study to decide on sample size and determine power. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 9(4), 599–620. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM0904_8
87.
Negru-SubtiricaO.PopE. I. (2018). Reciprocal associations between educational identity and vocational identity in adolescence: A three-wave longitudinal investigation. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 47(4), 703–716. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-017-0789-y
88.
Negru-SubtiricaO.PopE. I.CrocettiE. (2017). A longitudinal integration of identity styles and educational identity processes in adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 53(11), 2127–2138. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000325
89.
NesdaleD. (2004). Social identity processes and children’s ethnic prejudice. In The development of the social self (Vol. 7, p. 219). Psychology Press.
90.
NiemiR. G.KlinglerJ. D. (2012). The development of political attitudes and behaviour among young adults. Australian Journal of Political Science, 47(1), 31–54. https://doi.org/10.1080/10361146.2011.643167
PancerS. M.PrattM.HunsbergerB.AlisatS. (2007). Community and political involvement in adolescence: What distinguishes the activists from the uninvolved?Journal of Community Psychology, 35(6), 741–759. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.20176
93.
PantaleoG.ContuF. (2021). The dissociation between cognitive and emotional prejudiced responses to deterrents. Psychology Hub, 38(1), 39–50. https://doi.org/10.13133/2724-2943/17436
94.
PettigrewT. F.TroppL. R. (2008). How does intergroup contact reduce prejudice? Meta-analytic tests of three mediators. European Journal of Social Psychology, 38(6), 922–934. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.504
95.
PopE. I.Negru-SubtiricaO.CrocettiE.OpreA.MeeusW. (2016). On the interplay between academic achievement and educational identity: A longitudinal study. Journal of Adolescence, 47(1), 135–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.11.004
96.
PratiF.VasiljevicM.CrispR. J.RubiniM. (2015). Some extended psychological benefits of challenging social stereotypes: Decreased dehumanization and a reduced reliance on heuristic thinking. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 18(6), 801–816. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430214567762
97.
PrattoF.SidaniusJ.LevinS. (2006). Social dominance theory and the dynamics of intergroup relations: Taking stock and looking forward. European Review of Social Psychology, 17(1), 271–320. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463280601055772
98.
QuillianL. (1995). Prejudice as a response to perceived group threat: Population composition and anti-immigrant and racial prejudice in Europe. American Sociological Review, 60(4), 586–611. https://doi.org/10.2307/2096296
99.
RaabeT.BeelmannA. (2011). Development of ethnic, racial, and national prejudice in childhood and adolescence: A multinational meta-analysis of age differences. Child Development, 82(6), 1715–1737. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01668.x
100.
ReineckeJ. (2006). Longitudinal analysis of adolescents’ deviant and delinquent behavior: Applications of latent class growth curves and growth mixture models. Methodology: European Journal of Research Methods for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, 2(3), 100–112. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-2241.2.3.100
101.
RekkerR. (2016). The lasting impact of adolescence on left-right identification: Cohort replacement and intracohort change in associations with issue attitudes. Electoral Studies, 44, 120–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2016.06.016
102.
RekkerR.KeijsersL.BranjeS.MeeusW. (2015). Political attitudes in adolescence and emerging adulthood: Developmental changes in mean level, polarization, rank-order stability, and correlates. Journal of Adolescence, 41(1), 136–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.03.011
103.
RiekB. M.ManiaE. W.GaertnerS. L. (2006). Intergroup threat and outgroup attitudes: A meta-analytic review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10(4), 336–353. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_4
104.
RobertsB. W.DelVecchioW. F. (2000). The rank-order consistency of personality traits from childhood to old age: A quantitative review of longitudinal studies. Psychological Bulletin, 126(1), 3–25. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.126.1.3
105.
RutlandA.AbramsD.LevyS. (2007). Introduction: Extending the conversation: Transdisciplinary approaches to social identity and intergroup attitudes in children and adolescents. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 31(5), 417–418. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025407083669
106.
RutlandA.KillenM. (2015). A developmental science approach to reducing prejudice and social exclusion: Intergroup processes, social-cognitive development, and moral reasoning. Social Issues and Policy Review, 9(1), 121–154. https://doi.org/10.1111/sipr.12012
107.
SatorraA.BentlerP. M. (2001). A scaled difference chi-square test statistic for moment-structure analysis. Psychometrika, 66(4), 507–514. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02296192
108.
SatorraA.BentlerP. M. (2010). Ensuring positiveness of the scaled difference chi-square test statistic. Psychometrika, 75(2), 243–248. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11336-009-9135-y
109.
SchachnerM. K.NoackP.van de VijverF. J. R.EcksteinK. (2016). Cultural diversity climate and psychological adjustment at school: Equality and inclusion versus cultural pluralism. Child Development, 87(4), 1175–1191. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12536
110.
SchwarzenthalM.SchachnerM. K.JuangL. P.Van De VijverF. J. (2020). Reaping the benefits of cultural diversity: Classroom cultural diversity climate and students’ intercultural competence. European Journal of Social Psychology, 50(2), 323–346. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2617
111.
SchwarzenthalM.SchachnerM. K.van de VijverF. J. R.JuangL. P. (2018). Equal but different: Effects of equality/inclusion and cultural pluralism on intergroup outcomes in multiethnic classrooms. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 24(2), 260–271. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000173
112.
ScloveS. L. (1987). Application of model-selection criteria to some problems in multivariate analysis. Psychometrika, 52(3), 333–343. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02294360
113.
SibleyC. G.DuckittJ. (2008). Personality and prejudice: A meta-analysis and theoretical review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 12(3), 248–279. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868308319226
114.
SidaniusJ.PrattoF. (2001). Social dominance: An intergroup theory of social hierarchy and oppression. Cambridge University Press.
115.
SoenensB.DuriezB.GoossensL. (2005). Social–psychological profiles of identity styles: Attitudinal and social-cognitive correlates in late adolescence. Journal of Adolescence, 28(1), 107–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2004.07.001
116.
TaylorL. K.O’DriscollD.DautelJ. B.McKeownS. (2020). Empathy to action: Child and adolescent out-group attitudes and prosocial behaviors in a setting of intergroup conflict. Social Development, 29(2), 461–477. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12421
117.
ThijsJ.VerkuytenM. (2014). School ethnic diversity and students’ interethnic relations. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12032
118.
TrifilettiE.CoccoV. M.PeciniC.Di BernardoG. A.CadamuroA.VezzaliL.TurnerR. N. (2019). A longitudinal test of the bidirectional relationships between intergroup contact, prejudice, dispositional empathy, and social dominance orientation. TPM - Testing, Psychometrics, Methodology in Applied Psychology, 26, 385–400. https://doi.org/10.4473/TPM26.3.5
119.
Van der GraaffJ.BranjeS.De WiedM.HawkS.Van LierP.MeeusW. (2014). Perspective taking and empathic concern in adolescence: Gender differences in developmental changes. Developmental Psychology, 50(3), 881–888. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034325
120.
Van ZalkM. H. W.KerrM.van ZalkN.StattinH. (2013). Xenophobia and tolerance toward immigrants in adolescence: Cross-influence processes within friendships. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41(4), 627–639. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-012-9694-8
121.
VerhoevenM.PoorthuisA. M. G.VolmanM. (2019). The role of school in adolescents’ identity development. A literature review. Educational Psychology Review, 31(1), 35–63. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-018-9457-3
122.
VervoortM. H. M.ScholteR. H. J.ScheepersP. L. H. (2011). Ethnic composition of school classes, majority–minority friendships, and adolescents’ intergroup attitudes in the Netherlands. Journal of Adolescence, 34(2), 257–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2010.05.005
123.
von EyeA.BogatG. A. (2006). Person-oriented and variable-oriented research: Concepts, results, and development. Merrill–Palmer Quarterly, 52(3), 390–420. https://doi.org/10.1353/mpq.2006.0032
124.
WeberH. (2019). Attitudes towards minorities in times of high immigration: A panel study among young adults in Germany. European Sociological Review, 35(2), 239–257. https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcy050
125.
Wilson-DailyA. E.KemmelmeierM.PratsJ. (2018). Intergroup contact versus conflict in Catalan high schools: A multilevel analysis of adolescent attitudes toward immigration and diversity. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 64, 12–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2018.03.002
126.
WölferR.SchmidK.HewstoneM.van ZalkM. (2016). Developmental dynamics of intergroup contact and intergroup attitudes: Long-term effects in adolescence and early adulthood. Child Development, 87(5), 1466–1478. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12598
127.
ZimmermannG.MahaimE. B.MantzouranisG.GenoudP. A.CrocettiE. (2012). Brief report: The identity style inventory (ISI-3) and the utrecht-management of identity commitments scale (U-MICS): Factor structure, reliability, and convergent validity in French-speaking university students. Journal of Adolescence, 35(2), 461–465. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2010.11.013
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
