When Dogs Make the Difference: Jail-Based Parenting With and Without Animal-Assisted Therapy

Abstract

With 1.7 million children in the United States with an incarcerated parent, the need to provide evidence-based programming, which helps incarcerated mothers re-establish healthy relationships with their children, is essential. This study examines Parenting, Prison, and Pups, a jail-based parenting course for incarcerated women, integrated with the use of animal-assisted therapy (AAT). Utilizing a mixed-method quasi-experimental design, the authors examined differences between mothers who completed a parenting course with AAT, compared with those who completed the same course without AAT; statistically significant lower rates of parental stress and higher rates of self-esteem and parental knowledge among the AAT group were found. Based on qualitative data, the presence of therapy dogs appeared to encourage communication, trust, and connectedness between group members. These results indicate the importance of using innovative tools to help incarcerated women, who often have long histories of trauma and abuse, to develop healthy bonds with their children.

Keywords

animal-assisted therapy incarcerated mothers rehabilitation parenting jails

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Aaron

Dallaire

D. H.

(2010). Incarceration and multiple risk experiences: Effects on family dynamics and children’s delinquency. Journal of Youth Adolescence, 39(12), 1471–1484. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-009-9458-0

Allison

Ramaswamy

(2016). Adapting animal-assisted therapy trials to prison-based animal programs. Public Health Nursing, 33(5), 472–479. https://doi.org/10.1111/phn.12276

Alper

Durose

M. R.

Markman

(2018). 2018 update on prisoner recidivism: A 9-year follow-up period (2005-2014) (NCJ 250975). Bureau of Justice Statistics. https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/18upr9yfup0514.pdf

Ambrosi

Zaiontz

Peragine

Sarchi

Bona

(2019). Randomized controlled study on the effectiveness of animal-assisted therapy on depression, anxiety, and illness perception in institutionalized elderly. Pschogeriatrics, 19, 55–64. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyg.12367

Andrews

D. A.

Bonta

Wormith

J. S.

(2006). The recent past and near future of risk/need assessment. Crime and Delinquency, 52(1), 7–27. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128705281756

Andrews

D. A.

Guzzo

Raynor

Rowe

R. C.

Rettinger

L. J.

Brews

Wormith

J. S.

(2012). Are the major risk/need factors predictive of both female and male reoffending? A test with the eight domains of the level of service/case management inventory. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminologist, 56(1), 113–133. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X10395716

Armstrong

Eggins

Reid

Harnett

Dawe

(2017). Parenting interventions for incarcerated parents to improve parenting knowledge and skills, parent wellbeing, and quality of the parent–child relationship: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 14(3), 1–39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-017-9290-6

Balluerka

Muela

Amiano

Caldentey

M. A.

(2014). Influence of animal-assisted therapy (AAT) on the attachment representations of youth in residential care. Children and Youth Services Review, 42, 103–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.04.007

Barker

S. B.

Dawson

K. S.

(1998). The effects of animal-assisted therapy on anxiety ratings of hospitalized psychiatric patients. Psychiatric Services, 49(6), 797–801. https://doi.org/10.1176/ps.49.6.797

10.

Berry

Borgi

Terranova

Chiarotti

Alleva

Cirulli

(2012). Developing effective animal-assisted intervention programs involving visiting dogs for institutionalized geriatric patients: A pilot study. Psychogeriatrics, 12, 143–150. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1479-8301.2011.00393.x

11.

Berry

J. D.

Jones

W. H.

(1995). The parental stress scale: Initial psychometric evidence. Journal of Social and Personal Relations, 12(3), 463–472. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407595123009

12.

Brazier

(2014). Creature comfort? Animal assistance in therapeutic work with children and young people. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 19(2), 165–168. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359104513517446

13.

Bronson

Berzofsky

(2017, June). Indicators of mental health problems reported by prisoners and jail inmates, 2011-2012 (NCJ 250612). Bureau of Justice Statistics. https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/imhprpji1112.pdf

14.

Brown

Swanson

Chiro-Gilst

(2014). Demonstrating the efficacy of animal-assisted therapy. American International Journal of Social Science, 3(5), 1–6.

15.

Brown

T. A.

Chorpita

B. F.

Korotitsch

Barlow

D. H.

(1997). Psychometric properties of the depression anxiety stress scales (DASS) in clinical samples. Behavior, Research and Therapy, 35(1), 79–89.

16.

Carson

E. A.

(2020, April). Prisoners in 2018 (NCJ 253516). Bureau of Justice Statistics. http://www.antoniocasella.eu/nume/Carson_bjs_apr20.pdf

17.

Chandler

(2001). Animal-assisted therapy in counseling and school settings. ERIC Digest. http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED459404.pdf

18.

Christian

(2009). Children of incarcerated parents. National Conference of State Legislatures. https://www.ncsl.org/documents/cyf/childrenofincarceratedparents.pdf

19.

Clark

J. C.

(2009). Inequalities in prison. American Psychological Association, 40(9), 55–56.

20.

Collica

(2010). Surviving incarceration: HIV prison-based peer programs build communities of support for female offenders. Deviant Behavior, 31(4), 314–347. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639620903004812

21.

Collica-Cox

(2014). Counting down: HIV prison-based peer education programs and their connection to reduced disciplinary infractions. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 58(8), 931–952. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X13490660

22.

Collica-Cox

Fagin

(2018, May/June). Parenting, prison & pups: Parenting with a purpose. Corrections Today, 80(3), 24–32, 110.

23.

Collica-Cox

Furst

(2019). Parenting from a county jail: Parenting from beyond the bars. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 40(7), 593–604. https://doi.org/10.1080/01612840.2019.1565877

24.

Comfort

Nurse

A. M.

McKay

Kramer

(2011). Taking children into account. Addressing the intergenerational effects of parental incarceration. Criminology & Public Policy, 10(3), 839–850. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9133.2011.00750.x

25.

Crawford

J. R.

Henry

J. D.

(2003). The depression anxiety stress scales (DASS): Normative data and latent structure in a large non-clinical sample. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 42, 111–131. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466503321903544

26.

Cusack

. (1988). Pets and mental health. New York: Haworth Press.

27.

Dell

Chalmers

Stobbe

Rohr

Husband

(2019). Animal-assisted therapy in a Canadian psychiatric prison. International Journal of Prisoner Health, 15(3), 209–231. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJPH-04-2018-0020

28.

Deschenes

E. P.

Owen

Crow

(2006). Recidivism among female prisoners: Secondary analysis of the 1994 BJS recidivism data set. https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/216950.pdf

29.

Dunlap

V. M.

(2010). Canine assisted therapy and remediating reading: A review of literature [Master’s thesis, Northern Michigan University]. https://www.nmu.edu/sites/DrupalEducation/file[s/UserFiles/Files/Pre-Drupal/SiteSections/Students/GradPapers/EdSpecialist/Dunlap_Vicki_EP.pdf

30.

Eddy

J. M.

Martinez

C. R.

Burraston

(2013). A randomized controlled trial of a parent management training program for incarcerated parents: Proximal impacts. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 78(3), 75–93. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43773256

31.

Enders-Slegers

M. J.

(2000). The meaning of companion animals: Qualitative analysis of the life histories of elderly cat and dog owners. In Podberscak

A. L.

Paul

E. S.

Serpell

J. A.

(Eds.), Companion animals and us: Exploring the relationship between people and pets (pp. 237–256). Cambridge University Press.

32.

Esposito

McCune

Griffin

J. A.

Maholmes

(2011). Directions in human–animal interaction research: Child development, health, and therapeutic Interventions. Child Development Perspectives, 5(3), 205–211. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2011.00175.x

33.

Fleishman

S. B.

Homel

Chen

M. C.

Rosenwald

Abolencia

Gerber

Nadesan

(2015). Beneficial effects of animal-assisted visits on quality of life during multimodal radiation-chemotherapy regimens. The Journal of Community and Supportive Oncology, 13(1), 22–26. https://doi.org/10.12788/jcso.0102

34.

Fournier

A. K.

Geller

E. S.

Fortney

E. V.

(2007). Human-animal interaction in a prison setting: Impact on criminal behaviour, treatment progress and social skills. Behaviour and Social Issues, 16, 89–105. https://doi.org/10.5210/bsi.v16i1.385

35.

Furst

(2006). Prison-based animal programs: A national survey. The Prison Journal, 86(4), 407–430. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032885506293242

36.

Geist

T. S.

(2011). Conceptual framework for animal assisted therapy. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 28, 243–256. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-011-0231-3

37.

Gifford

E. J.

Evans

K. E.

Kozeche

Sloan

F. A.

(2020). Mothers and fathers in the criminal justice system and children’s child protective services involvement. Child Abuse and Neglect, 101, Article 104306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104306

38.

Glaser

B. G.

Strauss

A. L.

Elizabeth

(1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. Aldine Publishing Company.

39.

Glaze

L. E.

Maruschak

L. M.

(2008). Parents in prison and their minor children (NCJ 222984). Bureau of Justice Statistics. https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/pptmc.pdf

40.

Gonzalez

Romero

Cerbana

C. B.

(2007). Parent education programs for incarcerated mothers in Colorado. Journal of Correctional Education, 58(4), 357–353. https://www.jstor.com/stable/23282696

41.

Greene

. (2013). Children of incarcerated parents in New York State. A data analysis. NYS Division of Criminal Justice Services. http://www.criminaljustice.ny.gov/pio/2013-children-with-inarcerated-parents-report.pdf

42.

Harm

N. J.

Phillips

S. D.

(2001). You can’t go home again: Women and criminal recidivism. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 32(3), 3–21. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v32n03_02

43.

Heubner

B. M.

DeJong

Cobbina

(2010). Women coming home: Long-term patterns of recidivism. Justice Quarterly, 27(2), 225–254. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418820902870486

44.

Hoffmann

H. C.

Byrd

A. L.

Kightlinger

A. M.

(2010). Prison programs and services for incarcerated parents and their underage children: Results from a National Survey of Correctional Facilities. The Prison Journal, 90(4), 397–416. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032885510382087

45.

IAHAIO. (2018). The IAHAIO definitions for animal assisted intervention and guidelines for wellness of animals involved in AAI. https://iahaio.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/iahaio-white-paper-final-nov-24-2014.pdf

46.

Jasperson

R. A.

(2010). Animal-assisted therapy with female inmates with mental illness: A case example from a pilot program. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 49, 417–433. https://doi.org/10.1080/10509674.2010.499056

47.

Jasperson

R. A.

(2013). An animal-assisted therapy intervention with female inmates. Anthrozoos, 26(1), 135–145. https://doi.org/10.2752/175303713X13534238631678

48.

Kajstura

(2019, October 29). Women’s mass incarceration: The whole pie 2019. Prison Policy Initiative. https://www.prisonpolicy.org/reports/pie2019women.html

49.

Kazura

(2001). Family programming for incarcerated parents: A needs assessment among inmates. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 32(4), 67–83. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v32n04_05

50.

Keaveny

M. E.

Zauszniewski

J. A.

(1999). Life events and psychological well-being in women sentenced to prison. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 20(1), 73–89. https://doi.org/10.1080/016128499248790

51.

Kelly

M. A.

Cozzolino

C. A.

(2015). Helping at-risk youth overcome trauma and substance abuse through animal-assisted therapy. Contemporary Justice Review, 18(4), 421–434. https://doi.org/10.1080/10282580.2015.1093686

52.

Koda

Miyaji

Kuniyoshi

Adachi

Watababe

Miyaji

Yamada

(2015). Effects of a dog-assisted program in a Japanese prison. Asian Criminology, 10, 193–208. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11417-015-9204-3

53.

Korjenevitch

Dunifon

Kopko

(2010). Outcomes of participants in Cornell cooperative extension parenting skills workshop series parent education program. Cornell Cooperative Extension. https://www.human.cornell.edu/sites/default/files/PAM/Parenting/results%20by%20program/Parenting_Skills_Workshop_Series_FINAL.pdf

54.

Kramer

McDonnell

(2016, March). Children, parents, and incarceration. Descriptive overview of data from Alameda and San Francisco county jails. Zellerbach Family Foundation. http://sfgov.org/sfreentry/sites/default/files/Documents/CIP%20Jail%20Survey%20-%20Full%20Report%20FINAL%203%2015%2016.pdf

55.

Kunz-Lomelin

Nordberg

(2020). Assessing the impact of an animal-assisted intervention for jail inmates. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 59(2), 65–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/10509674.2019.1697786

56.

Loper

A. B.

Tuerk

E. H.

(2011). Improving the emotional adjustment and communication patterns of incarcerated mothers: Effectiveness of a prison parenting intervention. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 20(1), 89–101. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-010-9381-8

57.

Lovibond

S. H.

Lovibond

P. F.

(1995). Manual for the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (2nd ed.). Psychology Foundation of Australia.

58.

Maruschak

L. M.

Glaze

L. E.

Mumola

C. J.

(2010). Incarcerated parents and their children: Findings from the Bureau of Justice Statistics. In Eddy

J. M.

Poehlmann

(Eds.), Children of incarcerated parents: Handbook for researchers and practitioners (pp. 33–54). Urban Institute Press.

59.

McClanahan

K. K.

(2014, July 21). Can confidentiality be maintained in group therapy? The National Psychologist. http://nationalpsychologist.com/2014/07/can-confidentiality-be-maintained-in-group-therapy/102566.html

60.

Mears

D. P.

Siennick

S. E.

(2016). Young adult outcomes and the life-course penalties of parental incarceration. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 53(1), 3–35. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427815592452

61.

Mercer

Gibson

Clayton

(2015). The therapeutic potential of a prison-based animal programme in the UK. The Journal of Forensic Practice, 17(1), 43–54. https://doi.org/10.1108/JFP-09-2014-0031

62.

Miles

M. B.

Huberman

A. M

. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sources book (2nd ed.). Sage.

63.

Miller

H. V.

Barnes

J. C.

(2015). The association between parental incarceration and health, education, and economic outcomes in young adulthood. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 40(4), 765–784. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-015-9288-4

64.

Minton

C. A.

Perez

P. R.

Miller

(2015). Vices from behind prison walls. The impact of training service dogs on women in prison. Society & Animals, 23(5), 484–501. https://doi.org/10.1163/15685306-12341379

65.

Minton

C. A.

Zeng

(2016). Jail inmates in 2015 (NCJ 250394). Bureau of Justice Statistics. https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/ji15.pdf

66.

Morrison

M. L.

(2007). Health benefits of animal-assisted interventions. Complementary Health Practice Review, 12(1), 51–62. https://doi.org/10.1177/1533210107302397

67.

Mulcahy

McLaughlin

(2013). Is the tail wagging the dog? A review of the evidence for prison animal programs. Australian Psychologist, 48, 369–378. http://doi.org/10.1111/ap.12021

68.

Nasher

R. L.

Visher

C. A.

(2006). Family members experiences’ with incarceration and reentry. Western Criminology Review, 7(2), 18–29.

69.

Nepps

Stewart

C. N.

Bruckno

S. R.

(2014). Animal-assisted activity: Effects of a complementary intervention program on psychological and physiological variables. Journal of Evidence-Based Complementary & Alternative Medicine, 19(3), 211–215. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156587214533570

70.

Nimer

Lundahl

(2007). Animal-assisted therapy: A meta-analysis. Anthrozoos, 20(3), 225–238. https://doi.org/10.2752/089279307X224773

71.

O’Brien

(1985). Global self-esteem scales: Unidimensional or multidimensional? Psychological Reports, 57(2), 383–389. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1985.57.2.383

72.

Parenting Inside Out (PIO). (2015). Outcome study. Parenting Inside-Out. http://www.parentinginsideout.org/outcome-study/

73.

Perry

Fowler

Heggie

Barbara

(2011). The impact of a correctional-based parenting program in strengthening parenting skills of incarcerated mothers. Current Issues in Criminal Justice, 22(3), 458–472. https://doi.org/10.1080/10345329.2011.12035898

74.

Purvis

(2013). Paternal incarceration and parenting programs in prison: A review paper. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 20(1), 9–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/13218719.2011.615822

75.

Rosenberg

(1965). Society and adolescent self-image. Princeton University.

76.

Sandifer

J. L.

(2008). Evaluating the efficacy of a parenting program for incarcerated mothers. The Prison Journal, 88(3), 423–445. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032885508322533

77.

Shorey

H. S.

Synder

C. R.

(2006). The role of adult attachment styles in psychopathology and psychotherapy outcomes. Review of General Psychology, 10(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.10.1.1

78.

Silcox

Castillo

Y. A.

Reed

B. J.

(2014). The human animal bond: Applications for rehabilitation professionals. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling Volume, 45(3), 27–37. http://doi.org/10.1891/0047-2220.45.3.27

79.

Skar

A.-M. S.

von Tetzchner

Clucas

Sherr

(2014). Paradoxical correlates of a facilitative parenting programme in prison—Counter-productive intervention or first signs of responsible parenthood? Journal of Scandinavian Studies in Criminology and Crime Prevention, 15(1), 35–54. https://doi.org/10.1080/14043858.2014.898981

80.

Smith

H. P.

Smith

(2019). A qualitative assessment of a dog program for youth offenders in an adult prison. Public Health Nursing, 36, 507–513. https://doi.org/10.1111/phn.12622

81.

Stetina

B. U.

Krouzecky

Emmett

Klaps

Ruck

Kovacousky

Bunina

Aden

(2020). Differences between female and male inmates in Animal Assisted Therapy (AAT) in Austria: Do we need treatment programs specific to the needs of females in AAT? Animals, 10, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10020244

82.

Strimple

E. O.

(2003). A history of prison-inmate animal interaction programs. AMERICAN Behavioral Scientist, 43(1), 70–78. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764203255212

83.

Synder

Z. K.

(2009). Keeping families together: The importance of maintaining mother–child contact for incarcerated women. Women and Criminal Justice, 19(1), 37–59. https://doi.org/10.1080/08974450802586869

84.

Thomas

Matusitz

(2016). Pet therapy in correctional institutions: A perspective from Relational-Cultural Theory. Journal of Evidence-Informed Social Work, 13, 228–235. https://doi.org/10.1080/23761407.2015.1029840

85.

U.S. Commission on Civil Rights. (2020, February). Women in prison. Seeking justice behind bars. U.S. Commission on Civil Rights. https://www.usccr.gov/pubs/2020/02-26-Women-in-Prison.pdf

86.

Will

J. L.

Whalen

M. L.

Loper

A. B.

(2014). From one generation to the next: Childhood experiences of antisocial behavior and parental incarceration among adult inmates. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 53(3), 190–210. https://doi.org/10.1080/10509674.2014.887606

87.

Zeng

(2018). Jail inmates in 2016 (NCJ 251210). Bureau of Justice Statistics. https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/ji16.pdf

88.

Zilcha-Mano

Mikulincer

Shaver

P. R.

(2011). Pet in the therapy room: An attachment perspective on Animal-Assisted Therapy. Attachment & Human Development, 13(6), 541–561. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2011.608987