Is Getting Tough With Low-Risk Kids a Good Idea? The Effect of Failure to Appear Detention Stays on Juvenile Recidivism

Abstract

Although the juvenile justice system has adopted many alternatives to detention, the practice of detaining youth for failing to appear in court remains common. Despite its widespread use, it is unclear whether this form of detainment is harmful to juvenile offenders—especially to those who pose no credible threat to public safety. Accordingly, using data from the Florida Department of Juvenile Justice (FDJJ) and propensity score matching, we assess whether failure to appear (FTA) detention increases recidivism for low-risk youth. The results indicate that FTA detention increases official recidivism, technical recidivism, and re-detainment, and suggest that alternate policies be considered for low-risk juvenile offenders.

Keywords

juvenile detention failure to appear propensity score matching juvenile recidivism

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Aalsma

M. C.

White

L. M.

Lau

K. S. L.

Perkins

Monahan

Grisso

(2015). Behavioral health care needs, detention-based care, and criminal recidivism at community reentry from juvenile detention: A multisite survival care analysis. American Journal of Public Health, 105, 1372-1378.

Abrams

L. S.

(2013). Juvenile justice at a crossroads: Science, evidence, and twenty-first century reform. Social Science Review, 87, 725-752.

Abrams

L. S.

Snyder

S. M.

(2010). Youth offender reentry: Models for intervention and directions for future inquiry. Children and Youth Services Review, 32, 1787-1795.

Alemagno

S. A.

Stephens

P. C.

Shaffer-King

(2012). Characteristics of incarcerated youth reporting homelessness. Journal of Juvenile Justice, 2, 1-11.

Andrews

D. A.

Bonta

(2010). Rehabilitating criminal justice policy and practice. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 16, 39-55.

Andrews

D. A.

Zinger

Hoge

R. D.

Bonta

Gendreau

Cullen

F. T.

(1990). Does correctional treatment work? A clinically relevant and psychologically informed meta-analysis. Criminology, 28, 369-404.

The Annie E. Casey Foundation. (2013). Reducing youth incarceration in the United States. Retrieved from http://www.aecf.org/m/resourcedoc/AECF-DataSnapshotYouthIncarceration-2013.pdf

Apel

R. J.

Sweeten

(2010). Propensity score matching in criminology and criminal justice. In Piquero

A. R.

Weisburd

(Eds.), Handbook of quantitative criminology (pp. 543-562). New York, NY: Springer.

Armstrong

G. S.

Kim

(2011). Juvenile penalties for “lawyering up”: The role of counsel and extralegal case characteristics. Crime & Delinquency, 57, 827-848.

10.

Armstrong

G. S.

Rodriguez

(2005). Effects of individual and contextual characteristics on preadjudication detention of juvenile delinquents. Justice Quarterly, 22, 521-539.

11.

Ashkar

P. J.

Kenny

D. T.

(2008). Views from the inside: Young offenders’ subjective experiences of incarceration. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 52, 584-597.

12.

Baglivio

M. T.

Wolff

K. T.

Jackowski

Greenwald

M. A.

(2015). A multilevel examination of risk/need change scores, community context, and successful reentry of committed juvenile offenders. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice. In press. doi:10.1177/1541204015596052

13.

Bailey

W. C.

(1981). Preadjudicatory detention in a large metropolitan juvenile court. Law and Human Behavior, 5, 19-43.

14.

Barnert

E. S.

Perry

Azzi

V. F.

Shetgiri

Ryan

Dudovitz

. . . Chung

P. J.

(2015). Incarcerated youth’s perspectives on protective factors and risk factors for juvenile offending: A qualitative analysis. American Journal of Public Health, 105, 1365-1371.

15.

Bechtel

Lowenkamp

Holsinger

(2011). Identifying the predictors of pretrial failure: A meta-analysis. Federal Probation, 75, 78-88.

16.

Becker

S. O.

Caliendo

(2007). Sensitivity analysis for average treatment effects. The Stata Journal, 7, 71-83.

17.

Beckman

(2004). Crime, culpability, and the adolescent brain. Science, 305, 596-599.

18.

Benekos

P. J.

Merlo

A. V.

(2008). Juvenile justice: The legacy of punitive policy. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 6, 28-46.

19.

Bishop

D. M.

(2006). Public opinion and juvenile justice policy: Myths and misconceptions. Criminology & Public Policy, 5, 653-664.

20.

Bishop

D. M.

Frazier

C. E.

Lanza-Kaduce

Winner

(1996). The transfer of juveniles to criminal court: Does it make a difference? Crime & Delinquency, 42, 171-191.

21.

Bishop

D. M.

Leiber

Johnson

(2010). Contexts of decision making in the juvenile justice system: An organizational approach to understanding minority overrepresentation. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 8, 213-233.

22.

Blevins

K. R.

Cullen

F. T.

Sundt

J. L.

(2007). The correctional orientation of “child savers”: Support for rehabilitation and custody among juvenile correction workers. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 45, 47-83.

23.

Blomberg

T. G.

Bales

W. D.

Mann

Piquero

A. R.

Berk

R. A.

(2011). Incarceration, education and transition from delinquency. Journal of Criminal Justice, 39, 355-365.

24.

Blumstein

(2006). The crime drop in America: An exploration of some recent crime trends. Journal of Scandinavian Studies in Criminology and Crime Prevention, 7, 17-35.

25.

Blumstein

Wallman

(2006). The crime drop and beyond. Annual Review of Law and Social Science, 2, 125-146.

26.

Bridges

G. S.

Steen

(1998). Racial disparities in official assessments of juvenile offenders: Attributional stereotypes as mediating mechanisms. American Sociological Review, 63, 554-570.

27.

Burgess-Proctor

Holtrop

Villarruel

F. A.

(2008). Youth transferred to adult court: Racial disparities. Campaign for Youth Justice. Retrieved from http://www.campaignforyouthjustice.org/documents/YouthTransferred.pdf

28.

Caliendo

Kopeinig

(2008). Some practical guidance for the implementation of propensity score matching. Journal of Economic Surveys, 22, 31-72.

29.

Cauffman

Piquero

A. R.

Kimonis

Steinberg

Chassin

Fagan

(2007). Legal, individual, and environmental predictors of court disposition in a sample of serious adolescent offenders. Law and Human Behavior, 31, 519-535.

30.

Clair

Winter

A. S.

(2016). How judges think about racial disparities: Situational decision-making in the criminal justice system. Criminology, 54, 332-359.

31.

Cullen

F. T.

Jonson

C. L.

(2017). Correctional theory: Context and consequences (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

32.

Cullen

F. T.

Jonson

C. L.

Nagin

D. S.

(2011). Prisons do not reduce recidivism: The high cost of ignoring science. The Prison Journal, 91, 48S-65S.

33.

Cullen

F. T.

Pratt

T. C.

Turanovic

J. J.

(2016). It’s hopeless: Beyond zero-tolerance supervision. Criminology & Public Policy, 15, 1215-1227.

34.

D’Agostino

R. B.

(1998). Tutorial in biostatistics: Propensity score methods for bias reduction in the comparison of a treatment to a non-randomized control group. Statistics in Medicine, 17, 2265–2281.

35.

Davidson-Arad

(2005). Observed violence, abuse, and risk behaviors in juvenile correctional facilities: Comparison of inmate and staff reports. Children and Youth Services Review, 27, 547-559.

36.

Day

J. C.

Zahn

M. A.

Tichavsky

L. P.

(2015). What works for whom? The effects of gender responsive programming on girls and boys in secure detention. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 52, 93-129.

37.

Deitch

Barstow

Lukens

Reyna

(2009). From time out to hard time: Young children in the adult criminal justice system. Retrieved from http://www.campaignforyouthjustice.org/documents/NR_TimeOut.pdf

38.

Dierkhising

C. B.

Lane

Natsuaki

M. N.

(2014). Victims behind bars: A preliminary study of abuse during juvenile incarceration and post-release social and emotional functioning. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 20, 181-190.

39.

DiIulio

J. J.

(1995, November 27). The coming of the super predators. The Weekly Standard. Retrieved from http://www.weeklystandard.com/the-coming-of-the-super-predators/article/8160

40.

Duriez

S. A.

Cullen

F. T.

Manchak

S. M.

(2014). Is project HOPE creating a false sense of hope? A case study in correctional popularity. Federal Probation, 78, 57-70.

41.

Espinosa

E. M.

Sorensen

J. R.

(2016). The influence of gender and traumatic experiences on length of time served in juvenile justice settings. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 43, 187-203.

42.

Espinosa

E. M.

Sorensen

J. R.

Lopez

M. A.

(2013). Youth pathways to placement: The influence of gender, mental health need and trauma on confinement in the juvenile justice system. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42, 1824-1836.

43.

Fazel

Doll

Långström

(2008). Mental disorders among adolescents in juvenile detention and correctional facilities: A systematic review and metaregression analysis of 25 surveys. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 47, 1010-1019.

44.

Feld

B. C.

(1993). Criminalizing the American juvenile court. Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, 17, 197-280.

45.

Feld

B. C.

(2007). A century of juvenile justice: A work in progress or a revolution that failed? Northern Kentucky Law Review, 34, 189-256.

46.

Florida Department of Juvenile Justice. (2013). Roadmap to system excellence: Putting families first in transforming Florida into a national model for juvenile justice. Retrieved from http://www.djj.state.fl.us/docs/town-hall-meetings/roadmap-to-system-excellence_8-1-2013.pdf?sfvrsn=0

47.

Florida Department of Juvenile Justice. (2016). Statewide detention annual reporting system: Fiscal year 2015-2016.

48.

Fox

(1991). Regression diagnostics. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

49.

Frazier

C. E.

Bishop

D. M.

(1985). The pretrial detention of juveniles and its impact on case disposition. The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 76, 1132-1152.

50.

Frazier

C. E.

Bishop

D. M.

Lanza-Kaduce

(1999). Get-tough juvenile justice reforms: The Florida experience. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 564, 167-184.

51.

Frazier

C. E.

Cochran

J. C.

(1986). Detention of juveniles: Its effects on subsequent juvenile court processing decisions. Youth & Society, 17, 286-305.

52.

Gangl

(2004). RBOUNDS: Stata module to perform Rosenbaum sensitivity analysis for average treatment effects on the treated. Statistical Software Components.

53.

Garland

Moore

Stohr

M. K.

Kyle

(2016). Juvenile evening reporting centers: A research note on an emerging practice. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 14, 164-174.

54.

Gau

J. M.

Brunson

R. K.

(2010). Procedural justice and order maintenance policing: A study of inner-city young men’s perceptions of police legitimacy. Justice Quarterly, 27, 255-279.

55.

Guevara

Herz

Spohn

(2006). Gender and juvenile justice decision making: What role does race play? Feminist Criminology, 1, 258-282.

56.

Guo

Fraser

M. W.

(2015). Propensity score analysis: Statistical methods and applications (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

57.

Harris

(2009). Attributions and institutional processing: How focal concerns guide decision-making in the juvenile court. Race and Social Problems, 1, 243-256.

58.

Hayes

L. M.

(2009). Juvenile suicide in confinement: A national survey. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

59.

Henggeler

S. W.

Melton

G. B.

Smith

L. A.

(1992). Family preservation using multisystemic therapy: An effective alternative to incarcerating serious juvenile offenders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 953-961.

60.

Hoffman

P. B.

Stone-Meierhoefer

(1978). Reporting recidivism rates: The criterion/followup issue. U.S. Department of Justice, United States Parole Commission Research Unit. Retrieved from https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/49098NCJRS.pdf

61.

Holman

Ziedenberg

(2006). The dangers of detention: The impact of incarcerating youth in detention and other secure facilities. Justice Policy Institute. Retrieved from http://www.justicepolicy.org/images/upload/06-11_rep_dangersofdetention_jj.pdf

62.

Hurst

Y. G.

Frank

(2000). How kids view cops: The nature of juvenile attitudes toward the police. Journal of Criminal Justice, 28, 189-202.

63.

Jenson

J. M.

Howard

M. O.

(1998). Youth crime, public policy, and practice in the juvenile justice system: Recent trends and needed reforms. Social Work, 43, 324-338.

64.

King

D. C.

Abram

K. M.

Romero

E. G.

Washburn

J. J.

Welty

L. J.

Teplin

L. A.

(2011). Childhood maltreatment and psychiatric disorders among detained youth. Psychiatric Services, 62, 1430-1438.

65.

King

Elderbroom

(2014). Improving recidivism as a performance measure. Urban Institute. Retrieved from http://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/all-speaker-recidivism-webinar-presentations.pdf

66.

Lambie

Randell

(2013). The impact of incarceration on juvenile offenders. Clinical Psychology Review, 33, 448-459.

67.

Leiber

M. J.

(1994). A comparison of juvenile court outcomes for Native Americans, African Americans, and whites. Justice Quarterly, 11, 257-279.

68.

Leiber

M. J.

(2016). Race, prior offending, and juvenile court outcomes. Journal of Crime and Justice, 39, 88-106.

69.

Leiber

M. J.

Bogess

L. N.

(2012). Race, probation violations, and structured secure detention decision making in three jurisdictions. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 10, 333-353.

70.

Leiber

M. J.

Fox

K. C.

(2005). Race and the impact of detention on juvenile justice decision making. Crime & Delinquency, 51, 470-497.

71.

Leiber

M. J.

Nalla

M. K.

Farnworth

(1998). Explaining juveniles’ attitudes toward the police. Justice Quarterly, 15, 151-174.

72.

Leiber

M. J.

Peck

J. H.

(2015). Race, gender, crime severity, and decision making in the juvenile justice system. Crime & Delinquency, 61, 771-797.

73.

Leiber

M. J.

Peck

J. H.

Beaudry-Cyr

(2016). When does race and gender matter? The interrelationships between the gender of probation officers and juvenile court detention and intake outcomes. Justice Quarterly, 33, 614-641.

74.

Levin

(2010). Getting more for less in juvenile justice: Innovative and cost-effective approaches to reduce crime, restore victims, and preserve families. Texas Public Policy Foundation. Retrieved from http://www.njjn.org/uploads/digital-library/resource_1535.pdf

75.

(2013). Using the propensity score method to estimate causal effects: A review and practical guide. Organizational Research Methods, 16, 188-226.

76.

Lieber

M. J.

Johnson

J. D.

(2008). Being young and black: What are their effects on juvenile justice decision making? Crime & Delinquency, 54, 560-581.

77.

Lipsey

M. W.

Wilson

D. B.

Cothern

(2000). Effective intervention for serious juvenile offenders. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

78.

Loughran

T. A.

Wilson

Nagin

D. S.

Piquero

A. R.

(2015). Evolutionary regression? Assessing the problem of hidden biases in criminal justice applications using propensity scores. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 11, 631-652.

79.

Lowenkamp

Latessa

(2004). Understanding the risk principle: How and why correctional interventions can harm low-risk offenders. Topics in community corrections. Boulder, CO: National Institute of Corrections.

80.

Maahs

Pratt

T. C.

(2016). “I hate these little turds!”: Science, entertainment, and the enduring popularity of scared straight programs. Deviant Behavior. Advance online publication. doi:10.1080/01639625.2016.1190619

81.

MacDonald

J. M.

Chesney-Lind

(2001). Gender bias and juvenile justice revisited: A multiyear analysis. Crime & Delinquency, 2, 173-195.

82.

MacKenzie

D. L.

Wilson

D. B.

Armstrong

G. S.

Gover

A. R.

(2001). The impact of boot camps and traditional institutions on juvenile residents: Perceptions, adjustment, and change. Journal of Research in Crime & Delinquency, 38, 279-313.

83.

Maggard

S. R.

(2015). Assessing the impact of the Juvenile Detention Alternatives Initiative (JDAI): Predictors of secure detention and length of stay before and after JDAI. Justice Quarterly, 32, 571-597.

84.

Mallett

C. A.

Fukushima

Stoddard-Dare

Quinn

(2013). Factors related to recidivism for youthful offenders. Criminal Justice Studies, 26, 84-98.

85.

Maloney

Miller

(2015). The impact of a risk assessment instrument on juvenile detention decision-making: A check on “perceptual shorthand” and “going rates?” Justice Quarterly, 32, 900-927. doi:10.1080/07418825.2013.863961

86.

Maroney

T. A.

(2012). Angry judges. Vanderbilt Law Review, 65, 1027-1286.

87.

McGarrell

E. F.

Hipple

N. K.

(2007). Family group conferencing and re-offending among first-time juvenile offenders: The Indianapolis experiment. Justice Quarterly, 24, 221-246.

88.

Mears

D. P.

Field

S. H.

(2000). Theorizing sanctioning in a criminalized juvenile court. Criminology, 38, 983-1020.

89.

Mears

D. P.

Travis

(2004). Youth development and reentry. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 2, 3-20.

90.

Mendel

R. A.

(2009). Two decades of JDAI: A progress report. The Annie E. Casey Foundation. Retrieved from http://www.jdaihelpdesk.org/JDAI%20Policy%20and%20Program%20Briefs/Two%20Decades%20of%20JDAI%20From%20Demonstration%20Project%20to%20National%20Standard%20-%202009.pdf

91.

Mendel

R. A.

(2011). No place for kids: The case for reducing juvenile incarceration. The Annie E. Casey Foundation. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED527944.pdf

92.

Mendel

R. A.

(2014). Juvenile detention alternatives initiative progress report 2014. The Annie E. Casey Foundation. Retrieved from http://www.aecf.org/m/resourcedoc/aecf-2014JDAIProgressReport-2014.pdf

93.

Monahan

Steinberg

Piquero

A. R.

(2015). Juvenile justice policy and practice: A developmental perspective. Crime and Justice, 44, 577-619.

94.

Moon

M. M.

Sundt

J. L.

Cullen

F. T.

Wright

J. P.

(2000). Is child saving dead? Public support for juvenile rehabilitation. Crime & Delinquency, 46, 38-60.

95.

Morris

R. G.

(2013). Pretrial release mechanisms in Dallas County, Texas: Differences in failure to appear (FTA), recidivism/pretrial misconduct, and associated costs of FTA. UT Dallas Center for Crime and Justice Studies. Retrieved from http://www.utdallas.edu/epps/ccjs/dl/Dallas%20Pretrial%20Release%20Report%20-FINAL%20Jan%202013c.pdf

96.

Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. (2015). Juvenile justice system structure and process. U.S. Department of Justice. Retrieved from http://ojjdp.gov/ojstatbb/structure_process/case.html

97.

O’Keefe

(2007). Court appearance notification system: 2007 analysis highlights. Multnomah County, OR: Local Public Safety Coordinating Council. Retrieved from https://www.pretrial.org/download/research/Multnomah%20County%20Oregon%20-%20CANS%20Highlights%202007.pdf

98.

O’Neill

B. F.

(2002). Influences on detention decisions in the juvenile justice system. Juvenile and Family Court Journal, 53, 47-58.

99.

Orlando

(1999). Controlling the front gates: Effective admissions policies and practices. Pathways to juvenile detention reform. The Annie E. Casey Foundation. Retrieved from http://www.aecf.org/m/resourcedoc/AECF-ControllingtheFrontGates-1999.pdf

100.

Ostermann

Salerno

L. M.

Hyatt

J. M.

(2015). How different operationalizations of recidivism impact conclusions of effectiveness of parole supervision. Journal of Research in Crime & Delinquency, 52, 771-796.

101.

Peterson-Badali

Koegl

C. J.

(2002). Juveniles’ experiences of incarceration: The role of correctional staff in peer violence. Journal of Criminal Justice, 30, 41-49.

102.

Petitclerc

Gatti

Vitaro

Tremblay

R. E.

(2012). Effects of juvenile court exposure on crime in young adulthood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54, 291-297.

103.

Piquero

A. R.

(2008). Disproportionate minority context. The Future of Children, 18, 59-79.

104.

Podkopacz

M. R.

Feld

B. C.

(1996). The end of the line: An empirical study of judicial waiver. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 86, 449-492.

105.

Pratt

T. C.

(2009). Addicted to incarceration: Corrections policy and the politics of misinformation in the United States. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

106.

Pyrooz

D. C.

(2014). From colors and guns to caps and gowns? The effects of gang membership on educational attainment. Journal of Research in Crime & Delinquency, 51, 56-87.

107.

Redding

R. E.

(2003). The effects of adjudicating and sentencing juveniles as adults. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 1, 128-155.

108.

Rodriguez

(2007). Restorative justice at work: Examining the impact of restorative justice resolutions on juvenile recidivism. Crime & Delinquency, 53, 355-379.

109.

Rodriguez

(2010). The cumulative effect of race and ethnicity in juvenile court outcomes and why preadjudication detention matters. Journal of Research in Crime & Delinquency, 47, 391-413.

110.

Rodriguez

Smith

Zatz

M. S.

(2009). “Youth is enmeshed in a highly dysfunctional family system”: Exploring the relationship among dysfunctional families, parental incarceration, and juvenile court decision making. Criminology, 47, 177-208.

111.

Rosenbaum

D. I.

Hutsell

Tomkins

A. J.

Bornstein

B. H.

Herian

M. N.

Neeley

E. M.

(2012). Court date postcards: A benefit-cost analysis of using reminder cards to reduce failure to appear rates. Judicature, 95, 177-187.

112.

Schlossman

M. B.

Welsh

B. C.

(2015). Searching for the best mix of strategies: Delinquency prevention and the transformation of juvenile justice in the “get tough” era and beyond. Social Science Review, 89, 622-652.

113.

Scott

E. S.

Steinberg

(2008). Adolescent development and the regulation of youth crime. The Future of Children, 18, 15-33.

114.

Shook

J. J.

Sarri

R. C.

(2008). Trends in the commitment of juveniles to adult prisons: Toward an increased willingness to treat juveniles as adults? Wayne Law Review, 54, 1725-1765.

115.

Sickmund

(2003). Juveniles in court. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

116.

Stahlkopf

Males

Macallair

(2010). Testing incapacitation theory: Youth crime and incarceration in California. Crime & Delinquency, 56, 253-268.

117.

Steffensmeier

Kramer

Streifel

(1993). Gender and imprisonment decisions. Criminology, 31, 411-446.

118.

Steffensmeier

Ulmer

Kramer

(1998). The interaction of race, gender, and age in criminal sentencing: The punishment cost of being young, black, and male. Criminology, 36, 763-797.

119.

Stevens

Morash

(2015). Racial/ethnic disparities in boys’ probability of arrest and court actions in 1980 and 2000: The disproportionate impact of “getting tough” on crime. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 13, 77-95.

120.

Tarolla

S. M.

Wagner

E. F.

Rabinowitz

Tubman

J. G.

(2002). Understanding and treating juvenile offenders: A review of current knowledge and future directions. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 7, 125-143.

121.

Taylor

T. J.

Turner

K. B.

Esbensen

Winfree

L. T.

(2001). Coppin’ an attitude: Attitudinal differences among juveniles toward police. Journal of Criminal Justice, 29, 295-305.

122.

Teplin

L. A.

Welty

L. J.

Abram

K. M.

Dulcan

M. K.

Washburn

J. J.

McCoy

Stokes

M. L.

(2015). Psychiatric disorders in youth after detention. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

123.

Tomkins

A. J.

Bornstein

Herian

M. N.

Rosenbaum

D. I.

Neeley

E. M.

(2012). An experiment in the law: Studying a technique to reduce failure to appear in court. Court Review, 48, 96-106.

124.

Torbet

Szymanski

(1998). State legislative responses to violent juvenile crime: 1996-1997 update. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

125.

Trulson

C. R.

Haerle

D. R.

Caudill

J. W.

DeLisi

(2016). Lost causes: Blended sentencing, second chances, and the Texas youth commission. Austin: University of Texas Press.

126.

Tyler

T. R.

(2006). Why people obey the law. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

127.

van der Geest

V. R.

Bijleveld

C. C.

Blokland

A. A.

Nagin

D. S

. (2016). The effects of incarceration on longitudinal trajectories of employment: A follow-up in high-risk youth from Ages 23 to 32. Crime & Delinquency, 62, 107-140.

128.

Vera Institute of Justice. (2009). Charting a new course: A blueprint for transforming juvenile justice in New York state. Retrieved from http://www.vera.org/sites/default/files/resources/downloads/Charting-a-new-course-A-blueprint-for-transforming-juvenile-justice-in-New-York-State.pdf

129.

Wasserman

G. A.

McReynolds

L. S.

Schwalbe

C. S.

Keating

J. M.

Jones

S. A.

(2010). Psychiatric disorder, comorbidity, and suicidal behavior in juvenile justice youth. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 37, 1361-1376.

130.

Welty

L. J.

Harrison

A. J.

Abram

K. M.

Olson

N. D.

Aaby

D. A.

McCoy

K. P.

. . . Teplin

L. A.

(2016). Health disparities in drug- and alcohol-use disorders: A 12-year longitudinal study of youths after detention. American Journal of Public Health, 106, 872-880.

131.

Wermink

Blokland

Nieuwbeerta

Nagin

Tollenaar

(2010). Comparing the effects of community service and short-term imprisonment on recidivism: A matched samples approach. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 6, 325-349.

132.

Wolff

K. T.

Cochran

J. C.

Baumer

E. P.

(2014). Reevaluating foreclosure effects on crime during the “Great Recession.” Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 30, 41-69.