Experiences of peer victimization and bullying have been linked to the development of posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS), in part due to the heightened frequency and chronicity with which youth are exposed to aggression at the hands of peers. Less is known, however, about how other characteristics of these experiences, including polyvictimization, power imbalance, gender differences, and victim perceptions, may contribute to PTSS. The purpose of the current study was to examine the links between these characteristics of peer victimization/bullying and the development of PTSS during middle childhood. Participants included a sample of 284 third- through fifth-grade students (ages 8–12; 50.7% boys; 51.5% Hispanic/Latinx) who reported at least one experience of peer victimization over the course of the school year. Children also provided ratings of their PTSS. A series of linear regression models was estimated to examine the impact of individual characteristics of peer victimization and bullying on PTSS. Notably, each characteristic was found to significantly predict PTSS, with the exception of victims’ perceptions of the intentionality of the aggressive behavior. Significant predictors were then examined in a multiple regression model; results revealed that polyvictimization and one component of power imbalance—popularity of the aggressor(s)—were the most robust predictors of PTSS when examined alongside all other characteristics. These findings build on previous research and highlight the need to assess for specific factors that may lead to development of PTSS among victims of peer aggression.
AndreouE.TsermentseliS.AnastasiouO.KouklariE. C. (2021). Retrospective accounts of bullying victimization at school: Associations with post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms and post-traumatic growth among university students. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma, 14(1), 9–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40653-020-00302-4.
3.
BergerC.RodkinP. C. (2009). Male and female victims of male bullies: Social status differences by gender and informant source. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 61, 72–84. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9605-9
4.
BoumanT.van der MeulenN.GoossensF. A.OlthofT.VermandeM. M.AlevaE. A. (2012). Peer and self-reports of victimization and bullying: Their differential association with internalizing problems and social adjustment. Journal of School Psychology, 50(6), 759–774. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2012.08.004
5.
CarneyJ. V. (2008). Perceptions of bullying and associated trauma during adolescence. Professional School Counseling, 11(3), 179–188. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X0801100304
6.
CrickN. R.BigbeeM. A. (1998). Relational and overt forms of peer victimization: A multi informant approach. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66(2), 337–347. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.66.2.337
7.
EndersC. K. (2023). Missing data: An update on the state of the art. Psychological Methods, 30(2), 322–339. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000563
8.
EsbensenF.CarsonD. C. (2009). Consequences of being bullied: Results from a longitudinal assessment of bullying victimization in a multisite sample of American students. Youth & Society, 41(2), 209–233. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X09351067
9.
FaulF.ErdfelderE.LangA.-G.BuchnerA. (2007). G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39, 175–191. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03193146
10.
FinkelhorD.ShattuckA.TurnerH. A.OrmrodR.HambyS. L. (2011). Polyvictimization in developmental context. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma, 4, 291–300. https://doi.org/10.1080/19361521.2011.610432
11.
FinkelhorD.ShattuckA.TurnerH.HambyS. (2015). A revised inventory of adverse childhood experiences. Child Abuse & Neglect, 48, 13–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.07.011
12.
FiteP. J.CooleyJ. L.WillifordA. (2020). Components of evidence-based interventions for bullying and peer victimization. In SteeleR. G.RobertsM. C. (Eds.), Handbook of evidence-based therapies for children and adolescents (2nd ed., pp. 219–234). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44226-2_15
13.
FoaE. B.AsnaaniA.ZangY.CapaldiS.YehR. (2018). Psychometrics of the Child PTSD Symptom Scale for DSM-5 for trauma-exposed children and adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 47(1), 38–46. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2017.1350962
14.
GladdenR. M.Vivolo-KantorA. M.HamburgerM. E.LumpkinC. D. (2014). Bullying surveillance among youths: Uniform definitions for public health and recommended data elements, Version 1.0. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and U.S. Department of Education.
15.
GrahamJ. W.OlchowskiA. E.GilreathT. D. (2007). How many imputations are really needed? Some practical clarifications of multiple imputation theory. Prevention Science, 8(3), 206–213. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-007-0070-9
16.
GreenJ. G.FelixE. D.SharkeyJ. D.FurlongM. J.KrasJ. E. (2013). Identifying bully victims: Definitional versus behavioral approaches. Psychological Assessment, 25(2), 651–657. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031248
17.
HerzogJ. I.SchmahlC. (2018). Adverse childhood experiences and the consequences on neurobiological, psychosocial, and somatic conditions across the lifespan. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, 420–428. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00420
18.
HolfeldB.MishnaF. (2021). The development of post-traumatic stress symptoms among adolescents who experience cyber and traditional victimization over time. Journal of Youth Adolescence, 50, 2339–2350. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-021-01394-3
19.
HunterS. C.BoyleJ. M.WardenD. (2007). Perceptions and correlates of peer victimization and bullying. The British Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(4), 797–810. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709906X171046
20.
JackA. H.EganV. (2018). Childhood bullying, paranoid thinking and the misappraisal of social threat: Trouble at school. School Mental Health, 10, 26–34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-017-9238-z
21.
JenkinsL. N.MillerH. H.KaminskiS.PutzeysS. (2023). Re-conceptualizing peer victimization as a potentially traumatic event. International Journal of Bullying Prevention, 5, 151–160. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42380-022-00129-7
22.
KaufmanP.ChenX.ChoyS. P.ChandlerK. A.ChapmanC. D.RandM. R.RingelC. (1998). Indicators of school crime and safety (NCES 98-251/NCJ-172215). U.S. Departments of Education and Justice.
23.
KaufmanT. M. L.HuitsingG.VeenstraR. (2020). Refining victims’ self-reports on bullying: Assessing frequency, intensity, power imbalance, and goal-directedness. Social Development, 29, 375–390. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12441
24.
LaddG. W.EttekalI.Kochenderfer-LaddB. (2017). Peer victimization trajectories from kindergarten through high school: Differential pathways for children’s school engagement and achievement?Journal of Educational Psychology, 109(6), 826–841. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000177
25.
LitmanL.CostantinoG.WaxmanR.Sanabria-VelezC.Rodriguez-GuzmanV. M.Lampon-VelezA.BrownR.CruzT. (2015). Relationship between peer victimization and posttraumatic stress among primary school children. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 28(4), 348–354. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22031
26.
MenesiniE.NocentiniA. (2009). Cyberbullying definition and measurement: Some critical considerations. Journal of Psychology, 217(4), 230–232. https://doi.org/10.1027/0044-3409.217.4.230
27.
MorrowM. T.HubbardJ. A.BookhoutM. K.GrassettiS. N.DocimoM. A.SwiftL. E. (2021). Development and validation of the Forms of Peer Victimization Scale. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 67(1), 23–55. https://doi.org/10.13110/merrpalmquar1982.67.1.0023
NelsonH. J.BurnsS. K.KendallG. E.Schonert-ReichlK. A. (2019). Preadolescent children’s perception of power imbalance in bullying: A thematic analysis. PLoS One, 14(3), Article e0211124. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0211124
31.
NeunerF. (2023). Physical and social trauma: Towards an integrative transdiagnostic perspective on psychological trauma that involves threats to status and belonging. Clinical Psychology Review, 99, Article e102219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2022.102219
32.
OblathR.Greif GreenJ.GuzmánJ.FelixE. D.FurlongM. J.HoltM.SharkeyJ. (2019). Retrospective perceptions of power imbalance in childhood bullying among college students. Journal of American College Health, 68(8), 891–899. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2019.1633334
OssaF. C.PietrowskyR.BeringR.KaessM. (2019). Symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder among targets of school bullying. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 13, 43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-019-0304-1
35.
PatchinJ. W.HindujaS. (2006). Bullies move beyond the schoolyard: A preliminary look at cyberbullying. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 4(2), 148–169. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204006286288
36.
PfeiferJ. H.PeakeS. J. (2012). Self-development: Integrating cognitive, socioemotional, and neuroimaging perspectives. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 2(1), 55–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2011.07.012
37.
RanneyM. L.PatenaJ. V.NugentN.SpiritoA.BoyerE.ZatzickD.CunninghamR. (2016). PTSD, cyberbullying and peer violence: Prevalence and correlates among adolescent emergency department patients. General Hospital Psychiatry, 39, 32–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2015.12.002
SainioM.VeenstraR.LittleT. D.KärnäA.RönkköM.SalmivalliC. (2013). Being bullied by same- versus other-sex peers: Does it matter for adolescent victims?Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 42(4), 454–466. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2013.769172
40.
SalmivalliC.PoskipartaE. (2012). KiVa antibullying program: Overview of evaluation studies based on a randomized controlled trial and national rollout in Finland. International Journal of Conflict and Violence, 6, 294–302. https://doi.org/10.4119/unibi/ijcv.247
41.
SanchezC. R.CooleyJ. L. (2024). Peer victimization and callous-unemotional traits: The impact of parents and teachers. Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology, 52, 1551–1564. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-024-01213-w
42.
SapounaM.de AmicisL.VezzaliL. (2023). Bullying victimization due to racial, ethnic, citizenship and/or religious status: A systematic review. Adolescent Research Review, 8, 261–296 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-022-00197-2
43.
SharkeyJ. D.RudermanM. A.MaywormA. M.GreenJ. G.FurlongM. J.RiveraN.PurischL. (2014). Psychosocial functioning of bullied youth who adopt versus deny the bully-victim label. School Psychology Quarterly, 30(1), 91–104. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000077
44.
SjursøI. R.FandremH.NormanJ. O.RolandE. (2019). Teacher authority in long-lasting cases of bullying: A qualitative study from Norway and Ireland. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(7), Article 1163. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16071163
45.
SnodgrassM. A.SmithS. L.GregusS. (2024). Understanding children and adolescents’ experiences being bullied: A mixed-methods study. Trends in Psychology, 43, 385. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43076-024-00385-0
46.
SosinL. S.Rockinson-SzapkiwA. (2016). Creative exposure treatment as part of clinical treatment for adolescents exposed to bullying and experiencing posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms. Journal of Creativity in Mental Health, 11(3–4), 391–408. https://doi.org/10.1080/15401383.2016.1251370
47.
TurnerM. G.ExumM. L.BrameR.HoltT. J. (2013). Bullying victimization and adolescent mental health: General and typological effects across sex. Journal of Criminal Justice, 41, 53–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2012.12.005
48.
WaasdorpT. E.BradshawC. P. (2015). The overlap between cyberbullying and traditional bullying. The Journal of Adolescent Health, 56(5), 483–488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.12.002
49.
WangQ.LiuX. (2020). Peer Victimization and nonsuicidal self-Injury among Chinese left- behind children: The moderating roles of subjective socioeconomic status and social support. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(23–24), 11165–11187. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260519897346
YbarraM. L.EspelageD. L.MitchellK. J. (2014). Differentiating youth who are bullied from other victims of peer-aggression: The importance of differential power and repetition. The Journal of Adolescent Health, 55(2), 293–300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.02.009
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
