This qualitative study identified the emotional needs of female Kosovar refugees in southern Albania in May 1999, about 1 month following their flight from Kosovo. Common themes that emerged from the interviews included dealing with trauma, anxiety, and boredom and maintaining the hope that they would return home. On the basis of the findings, along with feminist theories as guiding concepts, the authors offer recommendations for the prevention of further trauma and treatment options for women in refugee camps.
References
1.
Ajdukovic!, M.
, & Ajdukovic!, D. (1993). Psychological well-being of refugee children. Child Abuse & Neglect, 17, 843-854.
2.
Allen, J. G.
, & Kelly, K. A. (1997). Apsychoeducational program for patients with trauma-related disorders. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 61, 222-239.
3.
Almqvist, K.
, & Brandell-Forsberg, M. (1997). Refugee children in Sweden: Post-traumatic stress disorder in Iranian preschool children exposed to organized violence. Child Abuse & Neglect, 21, 351-366.
4.
Amir, M.
, Kaplan, Z., & Kotler, M. (1996). Type of trauma, severity of posttraumatic stress disorder core symptoms, and associated features. Journal of General Psychology, 123, 341-352.
5.
Amodeo, M.
, Grigg-Saito, D., & Rogg, N. (1997). Working with foreign language interpreters: Guidelines for substance abuse clinicians and human service practitioners. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 15, 75-87.
6.
Aroian, K. J.
, & Norris, A. E. (2000). Resilience, stress, and depression among Russian immigrants to Israel. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 22, 54-68.
7.
Ballou, M.
(1995). Women and spirit: Two nonfits in psychology. Women & Therapy, 16(2-3), 9-21.
8.
Biever, J. L.
, Fuentes, C. D., Cashion, L., & Franklin, C. (1998). The social construction of gender: A comparison of feminist and postmodern approaches. Counseling Psychology Quarterly, 11, 163-180.
9.
Bloom, L. R.
(1996). Stories of one's own: Nonunitary subjectivity in narrative representation. Qualitative Inquiry, 21, 76-98.
10.
Breton, M.
(1999). The relevance of the structural approach to group work with immigrant and refugee women. Social Work With Groups, 22(2-3), 11-30.
11.
Bricker-Jenkins, M.
, Hooyman, N., & Gottlieb, N. (1991). Feminist social work practice in clinical settings. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
12.
Cariceo, C. M.
(1998). Challenges in cross-cultural assessment: Counseling refugee survivors of torture and trauma. Australian Social Work, 51(2), 49-52.
13.
Chelala, C.
(1998). Amnesty International condemns US human rights violations. Lancet, 352(9136), 1294-1295.
14.
Chung, R.C.Y.
, Bemak, F., & Wong, S. (2000). Vietnamese refugees' levels of distress, social support, and acculturation: Implications for mental health counseling. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 22, 150-162.
15.
Davis, R. E.
(2000). Refugee experiences and Southeast Asian women's mental health. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 22, 144-169.
16.
Durlak, J.
(1998). Primary prevention mental health programs for children and adolescents are effective. Journal of Mental Health, 7(5), 463-469.
17.
Eagle, G. T.
(1998). An integrative model for brief term intervention in the treatment of psychological trauma. International Journal of Psychotherapy, 3, 135-146.
18.
Echeburua, E.
, & Zaretta, P. (1997). Psychological treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress. Behavior Modification, 21, 433-457.
19.
Epp, M.
(1997). Thememoryof violence. Journal of Women's History, 9, 58-88.
20.
Evangelista, S.
(1997). Inner voices and outer positions: Women in peacekeeping. Social Alternatives, 16(2), 38-41.
21.
Foy, D.
(1992). Treating PTSD: Cognitive-behavioral strategies. New York: Guilford.
22.
Garbarino, J.
, Kostelny, J., & Dubrow, N. (1991). No place to be a child: Growing up in a war zone. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
23.
Giblin, P.
,& Chan, J. (1995). Afeminist perspective. Family Journal, 31, 234-239.
24.
Glaser, B. G.
,& Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. Chicago: Aldine.
25.
Gorst-Unsworth, C.
, & Goldenberg, E. (1998). Psychological sequelae of torture and organised violence suffered by refugees from Iraq. British Journal of Psychiatry, 172, 90-94.
26.
Hanmer, J.
, & Statham, D. (1989). Women and social work: Towards a womencentered practice. Chicago: Lyceum Books.
27.
Hanna, C. A.
, & Hanna, F. J. (1998). Meeting the needs of women in counseling: Implications of a review of the literature. Journal of Humanistic Counseling Education & Development, 36, 160-171.
28.
Hartman, A.
(1993). The professional is political. Social Work, 38, 365-368.
29.
Herkov, M. J.
, & Biernat, M. (1997). Assessment of PTSD symptoms in a community exposed to serialmurder. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 53, 809-815.
30.
Hyndman, J.
(1998). Managing difference: Gender and culture in humanitarian emergencies. Gender Place & Culture: AJournal of Feminist Geography, 5, 241-261.
31.
Jimenez, M. A.
(1997). Gender and psychiatry: Psychiatric conceptions of mental disorders in women, 1960-1994. Affilia, 12, 154-172.
32.
Jong, K. D.
, & Ford, N. (1999). Mental health care for refugees from Kosovo: The experience of Medecins Sans Frontieres. Lancet, 353(9164), 1616-1618.
33.
Kanyangale, M.
, & MacLachlan, M. (1995). Critical incidents for refugee counsellors: An investigation of indigenous human resources. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 8, 89-102.
34.
Laidlaw, T. A.
, & Malmo, C. (1990). Feminist approaches to therapy with women. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
35.
Lewis, E.
(1992). Regaining promise: Feminist perspectives for social group work practice. Social Work With Groups, 15(2-3), 271-284.
36.
Lincoln, Y.
, & Guba, E. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
37.
Lindsey, E. W.
(1997). Feminist issues in qualitative research with formerly homeless mothers. Affilia, 12(1), 57-76.
38.
Llabre, M.
, & Hadi, F. (1997). Social support and psychological distress in Kuwaiti boys and girls exposed to the Gulf crisis. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 26, 247-255.
39.
Lofland, D.
, & Lofland, L. H. (1995). Analyzing social settings. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
40.
Lubin, H.
,& Loris, M. (1998). Efficacy of psychoeducational group therapy in reducing symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 1172-1178.
41.
Macksoud, M. S.
, & Aber, J. L. (1996). The war experiences and psychological development of children of Lebanon. Child Development, 67, 70-89.
42.
Marsella, A. J.
, & Friedman, E. J. (1996). Ethnocultural aspects of posttraumatic stress disorder: Issues, research and clinical applications. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
43.
Maslow, A. H.
(1954). Motivation and personality. New York: Harper & Row.
44.
Mollica, R. F.
, McInnes, K., Poole, C.,& Tor, S. (1998). Dose-effect relationships of trauma to symptoms of depression and post-traumatic stress disorder among Cambodian survivors of mass violence. British Journal of Psychiatry, 173, 482-488.
45.
Nicholson, B.
, & Kay, D. M. (1999). Group treatment of traumatized Cambodian women: A culture-specific approach. Social Work, 44, 467-479.
46.
Norman, J.
, & Wheeler, B. (1996). Gender-sensitive social work practice: A model for education. Social Work Education, 32, 203-213.
47.
Pelka, F.
(1995). Voices from a war zone. Humanist, 55(2), 6-11.
48.
Rasekh, Z.
, Bauer, H. M., Manos, M. M., & Lacopino, V. (1998). Women's health and human rights in Afghanistan. Journal of the American Medical Association, 280, 449-556.
49.
Roscoe, A. D.
, Ackerman, P. T.,& Joseph, E. O. (1997). Posttraumatic stress disorder: A sensitization reaction. Integrative Psychological & Behavioral Science, 32, 9-19.
50.
Rothbaum, B. O.
(1997). Acontrolled study of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disordered sexual assault victims. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 61, 317-334.
51.
Russell, R. V.
, & Stage, F. K. (1996). Leisure as burden: Sudanese refugee women. Journal of Leisure Research, 28, 108-112.
52.
Salzman, T. A.
(1998). Serbs—Yugoslavia—Serbia—Belgrade; rape victims; religion; culture. Human Rights Quarterly, 20, 348-379.
53.
Scott, M. J.
(1997). Post-traumatic stress disorder: A cognitive-contextual approach. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 10, 125-138.
54.
Silove, D.
, Sinnerbrink, I.,& Field, A. (1997). Anxiety, depression and PTSD in asylum-seekers: Associations with pre-migration trauma and postmigration stressors. British Journal of Psychiatry, 170, 351-357.
55.
Stein, B.
(1986). The experience of being a refugee: Insights from the research literature. In C. Williams & J. Westermeyer (Eds.), Refugee mental health in resettlement countries(pp. 5-23). Washington, DC: Hemisphere.
56.
Summerfield, D.
(1991). Mental health of refugees and displaced persons. Lancet, 338(8777), 1261-1263.
57.
Swiss, S.
,& Jennings, P. J. (1998). Violence against women during the Liberian civil conflict. Journal of the American Medical Association, 279, 625-630.
58.
Tribe, R.
,& De Silva, P. (1999). Psychological intervention with displaced widows in Sri Lanka. International Review of Psychiatry, 11(2-3), 184-191.
59.
Van Den Bergh, N.
, & Cooper, L. B. (Eds.). (1986). Feminist visions for social work. Silver Spring, MD: National Association of Social Workers.
60.
Wali, S.
(1999). The impact of political conflict on women: The case of Afghanistan. American Journal of Public Health, 89, 1474-1477.
61.
Walters, V.
, & Denton, M. (1997). Stress, depression and tiredness among women: The social production and social construction of health. Canadian Review of Sociology & Anthropology, 34, 53-70.
62.
Weil, M.
(1986). Women, community, and organizing. In N. Van Den Bergh & L. B. Cooper (Eds.), Feminist visions for social work(pp. 187-210). Silver Spring, MD: National Association of Social Workers.
63.
Williams, C. L.
, & Berry, J. (1991). Primary prevention of acculturative stress among refugees. American Psychologist, 46, 632-641.
64.
Worell, J.
, & Remer, P. (1992). Feminist perspectives in therapy: An employment model for women. Chichester, UK: Wiley.
65.
Zippay, A.
(1995). The politics of empowerment. Social Work, 40, 263-268.