“Holding back the sea” is a predicament that is complicated by coastal development trends, eroding shore zones, and changing environmental conditions such as sea level rise. Planners are important players in shaping adaptive responses and identifying and prioritizing appropriate land-use planning strategies. This article provides an overview of existing regulatory provisions, studies, and planning efforts, as well as approaches and strategies to managing erosion of “high wave energy” and “low-to-medium wave energy” shorelines. The article also highlights the multiple sectors and stakeholders involved, and the need for continued research geared at evaluating the viability and feasibility of natural approaches such as living shorelines.
BenedetLindinoCampbellThomasFinklCharles W.StiveMarcel J. F.SpadoniRichard H.2005. “Impacts of Hurricanes Frances and Jeanne on Two Nourished Beaches along the Southeast Florida Coast.”Shore & Beach73(2–3): 43–48.
3.
BermanMarcia R.BerquistHarryHermanJulieNunezKarinna.2007. The Stability of Living Shorelines—An Evaluation. Final Report submitted to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Chesapeake Bay Program Office, Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William and Mary, Gloucester Point, Virginia.
4.
BermanMarcia R.BerquistHarryKilleenSharonNunezKarinnaReayKarenRudnickyTamiaSchattDanWeissDave.2006. Prince George’s County, Maryland—Shoreline Situation Report, Comprehensive Coastal Inventory Program, Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William and Mary, Gloucester Point, Virginia.
5.
BermanMarcia R.RudnickyTamia.2008. Living Shoreline Suitability Model: Worcester County, Maryland. Center for Coastal Resources Management, Virginia Institute for Marine Sciences, Glouchester Point, Virginia.
6.
BrowderAlbert E.2005. Hurricane Ivan: Storm Impacts to Beach Nourishment Projects—Gulf Shores, AL to Pensacola Beach, FL. Proceedings of Solutions to Coastal Disasters 2005, Charleston, South Carolina.
7.
BurkeDavid G.Scott HardawayC.2007. “South River Shore Erosion Management and Living Shoreline Guidelines.”A report prepared by the Virginia Institute of Marine Science and Burke Environmental Associates. Accessed April 10, 2011. http://www.burkeassociates.biz/documents/guidelines3_01_07.pdf.
CCRM (Center for Coastal Resources Management). 2010. Creating Living Shorelines: A Course for Contractors. Module 1: Ecosystem Services in the Chesapeake Bay and Impacts of Shoreline Stabilization. Gloucester, VA: Virginia Institute for Marine Science, College of William and Mary. Accessed May 10, 2011. http://ccrm.vims.edu/education/ls_design_class/index.html.
11.
ClarkRalph R.2005. “Impact of the 2004 North Atlantic Hurricane Season on the Coast of Florida.”Shore and Beach73(2–3): 2–10.
CurrinC. A.ChappellW. S.DeatonA.2009. “Developing Alternative Shoreline Armoring Strategies: The Living Shoreline Approach in North Carolina.” In Puget Sound Shorelines and the Impacts of Armoring—Proceedings of a State of the Science Workshop; Scientific Investigations Report 2010–5254, edited by ShipmanH.DethierM. N.GelfenbaumG.FreshK. L.DinicolaR. S.Accessed May 2012. http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2010/5254/pdf/sir20105254_chap10.pdf.
14.
DeanRobert G.DalrympleRobert A.2004. Coastal Processes with Engineering Applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
15.
DeyleRobert E.BaileyKatherine C.MathenyAnthony.2007. Adaptive Response Planning to Sea Level Rise in Florida and Implications for Comprehensive and Public-Facilities Planning. Florida Planning and Development Lab, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, FSU. Tallahassee, FL: Florida Planning and Development Lab, Florida State University.
16.
DeyleRobert E.FrenchSteven P.OlshanskyRob B.PatersonRobert.G.1998. “Hazard Assessment: The Factual Basis for Planning and Mitigation.” In Cooperating with Nature: Confronting Natural Hazards with Land-Use Planning for Sustainable Communities, edited by BurbyR. J., 119–166. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press.
17.
DouglassScott L.PickelBradley H., 1999. “The Tide Doesn’t Go Out Anymore—The Effect of Bulkheads on Urban Bay Shores.”Shore and Beach67(2/3): 19–25.
18.
DuhringK. A.BarnardT. A.HardawayS.2006. “A Survey of the Effectiveness of Existing Marsh Toe Protection Structures in Virginia.”Final Report to the Keith Campbell Foundation for the Environment, Inc. Virginia Institute of Marine Sciences, Glouchester Point, Virginia. Accessed May 2012, http://ccrm.vims.edu/publications/pubs/MarshToeRevtSurveyFinalReport.pdf
19.
FCOC (Florida Coastal and Ocean Coalition). 2008. Preparing for a Sea Change in Florida: A Strategy to Cope with the Impacts of Global Warming on the State’s Coastal and Marine Systems. Accessed December 15, 2008. http://www.flcoastalandocean.org/.
20.
FDEP (Florida Department of Environmental Protection). 2011. Florida Coastal Management Program: A Guide to the Federally Approved Florida Coastal Management Program. Accessed May 16, 2011. www.dep.state.fl.us/cmp/publications/fcmp_guide.pdf.
Hawaii COEMAP (Hawaii Coastal Erosion Management Plan). 2000. Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources. Honolulu, Hawaii: Coastal Lands Program.
23.
Heinz Center. 2000. Evaluation of Erosion Hazards: Summary. Prepared for the Federal Emergency Management Agency (Contract EMW-97-CO-0375). Washington, DC: Heinz Center for Science, Economics, and the Environment.
24.
HigginsMegan E.2008. “Sea Level Rise Impacts on Beaches and Coastal Property.”Sea Grant Law and Policy Journal1: 43–71(Roger Williams Univ. Legal Studies Paper No. 66). Accessed January 30, 2012. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1241647.
25.
HunterJohn.2010. “Estimating Sea-level Extremes under Conditions of Uncertain Sea-level Rise.”Climatic Change99:331–50.
26.
KleinRichard J. T.NichollsRobert J.RagoonadenSachoodaCapabiancoMicheleAstonJamesBuckleyEarle N.2001. “Technological Options for Adaptation to Climate Change in Coastal Zones.”Journal of Coastal Research17 (3): 531–43.
27.
LeathermanStephen P.2003. “Shoreline Change Mapping and Management along the U.S. East Coast.”Journal of Coastal Research38:5–13.
28.
LuscherA.HollingsworthC.2005. Shore Erosion Control: The Natural Approach. Publication of the Maryland Coastal Zone Management Program. Annapolis, MD: Maryland Department of Natural Resources.
29.
McCarthyJames J.CanzianiOsvaldo F.LearyNeil A.DokkenDavid J.WhiteKasey S.2001. Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
MDEP (Maine Department of Environmental Protection). 2008. Maine Shoreland Zoning: A Handbook for Shoreland Owners(Publication Number: DEPLW0674-D08). Accessed November 21, 2011. http://www.maine.gov/dep/blwq/docstand/sz/citizenguide.pdf.
32.
NeumannJames E.YoheGaryNichollsRobert J.ManionMichelle.2000. “Sea Level Rise and Global Climate Change: A Review of Impacts to U.S. Coasts.”Pew Center on Global Climate Change. Accessed September 8, 2009. http://www.pewclimate.org/docUploads/env_sealevel.pdf.
33.
NichollsRobert J.HoozemansFrank M. J.MarchandMarcel.1999. “Increasing Flood Risk and Wetland Loss Due to Global Sea-level Rise: Regional and Global Analyses.”Global Environmental Change9:S69–87.
34.
NichollsRobert J.LoweJason A.2004. “Benefits of Mitigation of Climate Change for Coastal Areas.”Global Environmental Change14:229–44.
35.
NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration). 1999. Tide and Current Glossary. Silver Spring, MD: National Ocean Service, Center for Operational Oceanographic Products and Services. Accessed January 15, 2012. http://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/publications/glossary2.pdf.
NordstromKarl F.JacksonNancy L.2005. Bay Shoreline Physical Processes(Fire Island National Seashore Science Synthesis Paper). Technical Report NPS/NER/NRTR—2005/020. Boston, MA: National Park Service.
41.
NRC (National Research Council). 1995. Beach Nourishment and Protection. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
42.
PilkeyOrrin H.YoungRobert S.2005. “Will Hurricane Katrina Impact Shoreline Management? Here’s Why It Should. Editorial.”Journal of Coastal Research21 (6): 3–9.
Ray-CulpMelodyHenselChrissy.2008. Living Shorelines—Promoting a Softer Approach than Coastal Hardening. Florida Natural Resources Leadership Institute Class VIII, Living Shoreline Workshop, Panama City, October16–18.
45.
RobertsonWilliam V.WhitmanDeanZhangKeqiLeathermanStephen P.2004. “Mapping Shoreline Position Using Airborne Laser Altimetry.”Journal of Coastal Research20 (3): 884–92.
46.
RuppertThomas K.2008. “Eroding Long-Term Prospects for Florida’s Beaches: Florida’s Coastal Construction Control Line Program.”Sea Grant Law and Policy1 (1): 65–98. Accessed May 22, 2011. http://nsglc.olemiss.edu/SGLPJ/Vol1No1/4Ruppert.pdf.
47.
SchwartzMaurice L.2005. “Coastal Processes.”Encyclopedia of Coastal Science3:323–27.
48.
SimmonsHarry.2006. “Discussion of Pilkey, O. H. and Young, R. S., Editorial: Will Hurricane Katrina Impact Shoreline Management? Here’s Why It Should.”Journal of Coastal Research21 (6): iii–ix); Journal of Coastal Research 22 (4): 1010–12.
49.
SpahnKenneth E.1995. “The Beach and Shore Preservation Act: Regulating Coastal Construction in Florida.”Stetson Law Review24 (2): 353–92.
50.
StaubleDonald K.2003. “The Use of Shoreline Change Mapping in Coastal Engineering Project Assessment.”Journal of Coastal Research38:178–206.
51.
StevensMark.2010. “Implementing Natural Hazard Mitigation Provisions: Exploring the Role that Individual Land Use Planners can Play.”Journal of Planning Literature24:362–71.
52.
StilesWilliam A.2008. “Living Shorelines: A Strategic Approach to Making It Work on the Ground in Virginia.” In Management, Policy, Science and Engineering of Nonstructural Erosion Control in the Chesapeake Bay. Proceedings of the 2006 Living Shoreline Summit. CRC Publ. No. 08-164, edited by ErdleS. Y.DavisJ. L. D.SellnerK. G., 99–104. Gloucester Point, VA: Virginia Institute of Marine Science.
53.
SwannLaDon.2008. “The Use of Living Shorelines to Mitigate the Effects of Storm Events on Dauphin Island, Alabama, USA.”American Fisheries Society Symposium64:47–57.
54.
ThielerRobert E.Hammar-KloseErika S.2000. National Assessment of Coastal Vulnerability to Sea level Rise: Preliminary Results for the U.S. Gulf of Mexico Coast. Woods Hole, MA: US Geological Survey.
55.
TitusJames G.1998. “Rising Seas, Coastal Erosion, and the Takings Clause: How to Save Wetlands and Beaches without Hurting Property Owners.”Maryland Law Review57 (4): 1279–399.
56.
TitusJames G.2009. “Preparing for Sea Level Rise.” In Coastal Sensitivity to Sea level Rise: A Focus on the Mid-Atlantic Region. Climate Change Science Program (CCSP). Final Report: Synthesis and Assessment Product 4.1, Washington, DC. Accessed October 4, 2010. http://www.climatescience.gov/Library/sap/sap4-1/final-report/b.
WhalenLauraKreegerDanielleBushekDavidMoodyJoshuaPadelettiAngela.2011. Practitioner’s Guide: Shellfish-Based Living Shorelines for Salt Marsh Erosion Control and Environmental Enhancement in the Mid-Atlantic, Delaware Estuary Living Shoreline Initiative. Accessed June 2, 2012. http://www.delawareestuary.org/science_projects_living_shoreline_reports.asp.
61.
ZhangKeqiHuangW. K.DouglasBruce C.LeathermanStephen P.2002. “Shoreline Position Variability and Long-term Trend Analysis.”Shore and Beach70:31–35.
